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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



\ 



THE ESSENTIALS OF 
GOOD TEACHING 



BY 



EDWIN ARTHUR TURNER 

DIRECTOR OF PRACTICE TEACHING 

ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY 

AUTHOR OF "OUR COMMON FRIENDS AND 

FOES" AND JOINT AUTHOR OF 

"A RURAL ARITHMETIC" 



WITH INTRODUCTION BY 

LOTUS D. COFFMAN 

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 



■it 



Copyright, 1920, 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 



CCT 15 1920 
©CI.A576879 



PREFACE 

Many years of experience in supervising practice teaching 
and in conducting method courses preparatory to such teaching 
have developed in the writer the conviction that intelligent self- 
direction is the most economical and respectable means of 
producing improvement in the art of teaching, provided the 
" self-direction " is guided by a knowledge^ the basic principles 
of good teaching. Thus safeguarded, self-direction is economical 
in that it insures a thoughtful beginning and thereby avoids 
much of the wasteful expenditure of energy involved in re- 
constructing harmful habits that have resulted from imitation. 
It is respectable in that it has a universally accepted foundation 
and is, therefore, capable of being defended. 

The form of the present volume is the result of a desire, and 
even a hope, of the writer to lay bare the essentials of good 
teaching in a simple, concrete, and consistent manner in order to 
conserve the time and energy of teachers who are anxious for 
intelligent guidance in their teaching. The order and the or- 
ganization of the various chapters are determined by the 
principles that are emphasized in the first chapter. An occa- 
sional reference to these principles will aid one in determining 
the sequence and relative worth of the topics presented. 

The writer desires to acknowledge the valuable suggestions he 
has received from the critic teachers of the practice department 
of the Illinois State Normal University during the years he has 
been director of practice teaching. He desires especially to 
express appreciation for the helpful suggestions of Professor 
M. J. Holmes and of Principal T. J. Lancaster, of the Illinois 



iv PREFACE 

State Normal University, who read the entire manuscript, and 
for the sympathetic assistance of his wife, Charlotte Griggs 
Turner. 

Normal, III. 
July i, 1920. 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

Most books on classroom technique are filled with helps, 
outlines, devices, and tricks of the trade. They are concerned 
with the practice of education. Such books usually find a ready 
market because teachers want to know how to teach. More- 
over, skillful manipulation is frequently accepted as an index of 
good teaching. But to fix attention upon helps and devices is 
to fix attention upon the externals of education. It means that 
thought is arrested on the plane of thinking in things rather 
than on the plane of thinking in principles ; it means that the 
practical judgment — the judgment which deals with the 
near-at-hand in a manner analogous to some similar experience 
— is emphasized at the expense of the conceptual judgment — 
the judgment which determines conduct in terms of principles 
or tested experience. It is obvious that these levels of thought 
find expression in levels of technique. The exercise of the 
practical judgment results in devices ; the exercise of the con- 
ceptual judgment results in principles. 

Few writers on education have reduced practice to principle, 
and yet it is only as one is cognizant of principles that he is 
able to illumine practice. Not a few still cherish the tradition 
that theory is something separate and quite apart from practice. 
They fail to recognize that, in general, theory is the result of the 
failures of practice. One discovers fundamentals by observing 
their manifestations. Just so long as things run smoothly, so 
long as there is no break in the current of things, there is no 
occasion for thought. One thinks when his mental equilibrium 
is disturbed, when he is conscious of some maladjustment, when 
the sensation of strain between what one is and is not but 



VI EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

ought to be is intensified. Only then does he have a problem ; 
only then does he search for the hidden factors which explain 
the breaks in thought or the breaches of conduct. These 
considerations hold with equal force when applied to school 
procedure. To arrive at the essentials of classroom teaching 
one must observe teaching itself. He will note its failure to 
secure satisfactory results. He will interpret its strengths and 
weaknesses in terms of life outside the school. He will check 
the completeness with which the child is being adjusted to the 
world outside by being adjusted to a constantly enlarging series 
of worlds inside the school. Every stage and every step of 
the process will be tested to discover the principles that under- 
lie and explain the best practice. 

Such is the manner in which the philosophy of this book has 
been built up. The author for years has been the director of a 
training school. His program of education and outline of 
principles are the result of thousands of recitations that he had 
observed. At the very outset he differentiates teaching from 
other forms of activity. He defines aims of public school 
teaching in terms of social needs ; describes the origin, growth, 
and organization of subject-matter and shows its functional 
implications; explains clearly how the child is the chief 
determinant of method ; applies the principles thus arrived at 
to ways of learning, acquisition of habits, the development of 
appreciation, means of imposing responsibility; outlines the 
character of stimuli involved in good teaching, and finally shows 
how these essentials of good teaching should actually be em- 
ployed in the presentation of the various elementary school 
subjects. 

For the teacher who desires a safe and sane philosophy, a 
wholesome philosophy, one that has stood the test of experience, 
this book will prove invaluable. For one who needs a solid 
base upon which to build a substantial superstructure of school- 
room experience, this book will serve as a safe guide. For one 
who is disturbed by the thousand and one miscellaneous and 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION Vli 

apparently inchoate performances of the schoolroom, this book 
will aid in unifying and in interpreting them. In addition the 
manuscript has the merit of being simple in style and of possess- 
ing that concreteness of illustration and wealth of detail that 
adapt it to the use of young as well as to old teachers. 

Lotus D. Coffman 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Teaching Distinguished from Other Forms 

of Doing i 

Earmarks of industrial success; earmarks of good 
teaching ; scholarship not a guarantee of good teaching ; 
steps in a successful act — definite aim, knowledge of 
materials, skill in controlling materials, a boundless 
enthusiasm; steps peculiar to a successful teaching 
act — social aim, function and structure of subject- 
matter, knowledge of the reactive attitude of the child, 
knowledge of appropriate stimuli, skillful control of 
stimuli, enthusiasm for teaching ; summary. 

II. The Aim of Public-School Teaching . . 14 

The goal of instruction ; dynamic aspect of teaching aims ; 
static aspect of teaching aims; an apparent diversity 
in the aims of instruction — "complete living," "good 
will to men, useful and happy lives and noble enjoy- 
ment," "adjustment," "social efficiency," "apprecia- 
tion and control of values of life," "produce and utilize 
production"; social efficiency a teaching aim; inter- 
pretative need, need of skill, socializing need, moral 
need, cultural need ; summary. 

III. The Growth of Subject- Matter ... 34 

The acid test of subject-matter; twofold phase of 
worthwhileness ; dynamic character of subject-matter; 
origin of subject-matter — desire to know, practical 
problems to solve; compromise view of the origin of 
subject-matter ; agencies which operate to conserve sub- 
ject-matter — imitation, recession from content to form, 
group teaching; a sense of relative values necessary to 
progress; child factor in evolution of subject-matter; 
psychologized subject-matter — present status of read- 
ing, present status of arithmetic ; present status of other 
subjects. 

IV. Organization of Subject-Matter ... 49 

Living organisms ; hereditary variation and selection, 
the survival of the fittest ; inanimate organisms — the 
ix 



x CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

formative agency, twofold purpose; school concerned 
with the twofold nature of structure — develop creative 
abilities, develop interpretative abilities; interrelation 
of structure and function — structure reveals purpose, 
purpose determines structure; organization and logical 
thinking ; means of determining unifying ideas ; teachers' 
organizations; indirect and specific purpose of subject- 
matter; organization and retention; typical organiza- 
tions — psychological approach, interrelation of logical 
and psychological organizations, chronological organiza- 
tions. 

V. The Child Factor in Method ... 69 

Human nature accounted for; two distinct theories of 
evolution — transmission of acquired characteristics, 
congenital variation and selection ; advancement through 
accumulated experiences; reactive attitude of the 
child ; two types of thinking — simple thinking, pur- 
posive thinking, factors — the problem, the project a 
form of the problem, examples of the project, the project 
defined, value of the project, basic experience, a felt 
need, habits of reasoning ; individual differences ; sense 
differences ; instinctive differences. 

VI. Teaching Based upon Ways of Learning . 93 

Means of teaching ; methods of learning — imitation, 
induction — direct perception, indirect perception, com- 
parison, generalization and definition, application; de- 
duction — a felt difficulty, examination of data, tenta- 
tive hypotheses, testing hypotheses, verification; re- 
view of the deductive factors. 

VII. Habit Formation . 117 

Scope of habit ; relation of habit to efficiency — con- 
serves energy, releases energy, makes for uniformity and 
consistency ; habits the school should establish ; method 
in habit formation — steps involved. 

VIII. The Emotional Factor in Teaching . .134 

Emotional aspects of the self — interest, motive; 
phases of motive ; play, work, and drudgery ; ideals and 
prejudices. 



CONTENTS XI 

CHAPTER PAGE 

IX. Means of Generating Responsibility . . 146 

Interest in subject-matter for its own sake — examples, 
means of arousing it, problematic assignments, chance for 
voluntary contributions — individual reports, optional 
work; positive social approval of teacher, classmates, 
and others — examples, means of arousing — strong 
personal appeal, opportunity to win — dramatization, 
exhibits, supplementary reports, optional work, furnish- 
ing materials, unstinted approval of teacher, approval 
of class, topical recitation, use of blackboard ; negative 
social approval — means of stimulating ; daily tests ; 
definite administrative requirements — punctuality, so- 
cializing agencies, standardized tests. 

X. Value and Character of Effective Stimuli . 164 

Use of stimuli: classes of stimuli: concrete stimuli — 
direct, illustrative ; forms of presenting subject-matter — 
textbook method, lecture method, developing method; 
classroom questions — direct, indirect, alternative, ellip- 
tical. 

XI. The Value and Method of Comparison . 177 

Nature of comparison; comparison provokes thought; 
examples — history, nature study, English, literature; 
comparison clarifies thought; comparison stimulates 
the memory ; comparison prevails in modern textbooks ; 
objective standards force comparison. 

XII. Application of Principles to Reading . .188 

Industries employ expert knowledge; schools must em- 
ploy expert knowledge; expert knowledge in reading; 
motivating factors in primary reading — rhythmic in- 
stinct, phonograms, dramatization, telling the story, use 
of pictures, suitable reading materials. 

XIII. Application of Principles to Primary Arith- 
metic, Writing, and Spelling . . .200 

Origin of method in arithmetic ; notable features in text- 
books; an initial device for creating motive; problems 
should precede drill ; accuracy and speed ; success ; re- 
duction of processes to conserve energy ; Austrian method 
of subtraction ; Austrian method of division; analysis of 



xii CONTENTS 



the writing process — intrinsic function of writing, use 
of standardized scales, movement and quality of writing 
— muscular movement, application of fundamental 
habits; disagreement among writing masters; applica- 
tion of the formal steps of habit formation to writing; 
spelling problem analyzed — influence of reformers, ap- 
plication of rules, results of investigation — objective 
scales, modified vocabularies, simplified spelling; appli- 
cation of the laws of habit formation to spelling. 

XIV. Standards for Measuring Results of Teach- 
ing ........ 217 

General meaning of efficiency ; measurement of efficiency 
in the industries; legal aspect of standards, classes of 
standards — subjective standards, objective standards ; 
subjective standards — pupil-community attitude, grades 
and promotions, classroom technique, the reactive atti- 
tude of the child, guides and unstandardized scales. 

XV. Growth and Application of Objective Stand- 
ards 227 

Classes of objective standards — standardized scores, 
standardized scales; origin of objective standards; 
spelling standards — Rice's Spelling Standard, Corn- 
man's Spelling Standards, Ayres' Spelling Scale, Bucking- 
ham's Spelling Scale, Starch's Spelling Scale, Jones' Spell- 
ing Demons ; handwriting standards — Thorndike's 
Handwriting Scale, Ayres' Handwriting Scale, Gettysburg 
Edition of Ayres' Handwriting Scale, Freeman's Chart 
for Diagnosing Faults in Handwriting, Starch's Hand- 
writing Standard ; reading standards — Thorndike's 
Reading Scales, Kansas Silent Reading Scale, Monroe's 
Silent Reading Tests, Gray's Silent and Oral ^Reading 
Tests, Courtis' Silent Reading Test; composition 
standards — Rice's Language Test, Bliss's English Com- 
position Tests, the Hillegas Scale for the Measurement 
of Quality in English Composition, The Harvard-Newton 
Composition Scales; Trabue's Composition Standard; 
arithmetic standards — Rice's Arithmetic Test, Courtis' 
Standard Tests in Arithmetic, Cleveland-Survey Arith- 
metic Tests, Woody Arithmetic Scales, Ballou Addition 



CONTENTS xiii 



of Fractions Tests; drawing scales — Thorndike's Scale 
for Measuring Achievement in Drawing; geography 
scales — Hahn-Lackey Geography Scale ; history scales, 
Tests of Information in American History; Standards 
in Algebra — Standardized Tests in First-year Alge- 
bra, Hurdles in First-year Algebra; standards used to 
measure both form and content; diagnostic value of 
objective standards. 

Index 265 



THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD 
TEACHING 

CHAPTER I 

TEACHING DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER 
FORMS OF DOING 

Earmarks of Industrial Success. — In ordinary affairs 
we are accustomed to think of forethought and systematic 
planning as prerequisites to success. A successful gardener 
considers climatic probabilities, soil fertility, quality of 
seed, period of maturity, methods of planting, cultivating, 
and harvesting before he begins to plant. The successful 
merchant holds in imagination the probable needs of his 
customers for the coming season before he lays in the 
season's goods. The successful contractor critically 
examines the blueprint of a proposed structure, a price 
list of the materials required, and the availability and cost 
of the labor needed to construct it before he bids on the 
building in question. In short, seeing the end from the 
beginning is an earmark of reliable and consistent success 
in the industries. 

Earmarks of Good Teaching. — This earmark of success 
characterizes good teaching also. Adequate forethought 
is more fruitful in teaching than in the less subtle and more 
concrete processes. There can be no doubt, however, that 



2 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

" seeing the end from the beginning" is a much more com- 
plicated process in teaching than in most fields of endeavor. 
Those who think otherwise have in mind but a portion of 
the teaching process. They think of subject-matter and 
scholarship as the prime prerequisites of teaching success. 
The number of such persons in the teaching profession is 
sufficient to justify detailed consideration of the essential 
factors in the teaching process at the outset of a discussion 
of methods of teaching. 

There is no science of teaching — not even a teaching 
art — for those who hold this view. It is vital therefore 
that teaching be distinguished from other forms of doing 
and that its essential characteristics be written large so 
that beginners may realize the complexity, the coordination, 
the understanding, and the skills involved in efficient teach- 
ing. 

Scholarship Not a Guarantee of Good Teaching. — A 
certain degree of scholarship is a necessary but not a suffi- 
cient preparation for teaching. The scores of normal 
schools, city training schools, teachers' colleges, and the 
general supervision of teaching throughout the country 
are concrete evidence of the accuracy of this state- 
ment. There is a widely accepted notion among patrons 
and even among the rank and file of teachers that if one 
has sufficient academic training he is qualified to teach 
successfully. This view is so significant and its acceptance 
so hazardous that it should not be ignored by teachers of 
pedagogy. It is incumbent upon those who profess to 
believe in the science of teaching either to expose the 
fallacious theory that scholarship is a sufficient pre- 
requisite to teach adequately ; or to abandon, temporarily 
at least, the claims for the adequacy of methods of teaching. 



DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER FORMS OF DOING 3 

Factors in a Successful Act 

Like the solution of every complex problem, that of good 
teaching must be approached through an analysis of the 
problem into its essential factors. One must discover the 
steps in the conscious process of performing an act and 
observe in what particulars they differ from the steps in the 
conscious process of teaching some one to perform a similar 
act. 

A Definite Aim. — It is inconceivable that one should 
deliberately perform an act without a purpose or aim. 
Observation of individual endeavor discovers purpose. 
The acts of the farmer as he goes back and forth across 
the field at his plowing; the acts of the shoemaker in 
applying his trade from day to day; the multitudinous 
acts of the housekeeper in her daily round of activity; 
and the various moves of the fisherman in his endeavor to 
excite the appetite of the finny tribe, would seem incoherent 
and ridiculous to the observer did he not discover purpose 
back of them all. 

One must admit, however, that all human activity is- not 
deliberately performed. Through the processes of physical 
evolution many fundamental activities have been provided 
for by automatic reactions. Reflexes and instincts are 
ready-made methods of performing many vital acts which 
are fundamental to the welfare of the individual and to the 
race. One cannot afford to close the eye deliberately when 
a flying cinder approaches it. Neither can he afford to 
take chances of escaping the fangs of a rattle-snake by 
thinking about a way to escape. In either case deliberation 
is too slow a process. Nature has provided ready-made 
ways of successfully doing many things which demand 



4 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

immediate action for the care and welfare of the body. 
Unconscious imitation is a familiar example of the prevalence 
and importance of unpremeditated activities. 

Habit also plays a large and important part in human 
welfare. One large function of systematic training is the 
reduction of consciously directed activities to habits. 
Effective habits conserve both time and energy, make for 
efficiency, reduce fatigue, and release mental and physical 
energy for further accomplishments. • 

Though native and habituated reactions are many and 
varied, and of vital significance in individual and racial 
economy, they are not peculiarly human qualities. It is 
only when one deliberately begins to control his eviron- 
ment and consciously directs his energy to the accomplish- 
ment of some purpose that his act savors of human quality. 
It is to be assumed, therefore, that in every deliberate per- 
formance man has an aim. To the extent that the aim is 
definite and concrete there is an assurance of success. 

A Knowledge of Materials. — Though a definite concrete 
aim is essential to successful endeavor, it is by no means a 
complete guarantee of success. A fisherman may have a 
very definite notion of how he expects to ensnare a fish in 
the brook and yet completely fail in his efforts. He must 
have a definite knowledge of the materials to be employed 
in the realization of his aim. If the fisherman is to succeed, 
he must know the sort of bait to use and how to prepare 
it. He must have a knowledge of the fishing tackle em- 
ployed by successful fishermen, — poles, lines, sinkers, 
bobbers, reels, and hooks. He must have a general notion 
of the mouth structure of the various species of fish he is 
trying to catch, as well as a general knowledge of the feeding 
habits of these species. 



DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER FORMS OF DOING $ 

In like manner, successful farming depends upon a definite 
knowledge of the materials employed. To be efficient, 
the farmer must understand the chemical ingredients of 
the crops he raises and the relative prevalence of these 
ingredients in the soils he cultivates. He must know when 
and how to sow and reap most advantageously. He must 
be familiar with improved farm implements and with their 
relative value in preparing the soil. 

Whether it be fishing, farming, house building, running a 
grocery, the making of brooms, the constructing of automo- 
biles, or the baking of bread, adequate and continuous 
success depends upon a thorough knowledge of the materials 
employed by him who is conducting the enterprise. 

Skill in Controlling Materials. — One may have a definite 
aim and a perfect understanding of the materials to be 
employed and yet fail in an endeavor. A sportsman may 
have a very clear notion of the game he expects to bag and 
a very thorough knowledge of guns and ammunitions, and 
yet disgrace himself in a hunting contest. Indeed he may 
understand the specific purpose of each make of gun, be 
familiar with the propelling power of each grain of explosive 
used, and know the degrees of hardness of the bullets em- 
ployed. Moreover, it is possible that he may be conscious 
of the fundamental principle which is involved in all suc- 
cessful shooting, namely, "two points determine a straight 
line," and yet fail as a sportsman. Successful hunting 
consists in more than a definite aim and a thorough knowl- 
edge of the materials employed in the realization of that 
aim. It is conditioned by the degree of skill employed in 
manipulating the firing piece. 

What is essential to success in hunting is essential to a 
greater or less extent in other successful enterprises. As 



6 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

human endeavor becomes more highly specialized and as 
competition increases, skill becomes an increasingly large 
factor in success. 

Boundless Enthusiasm. — One would suppose that if he 
possesses a definite aim, a thorough knowledge of the 
materials to be employed, and skill in manipulating 
the materials in the furtherance of the aim, a successful 
accomplishment is assured. On the contrary, however, 
experience is rich with incidents that belie the apparent 
trustworthiness of this supposition. Who has not known 
a tramp or a vagabond who possessed "skill," a " thorough 
knowledge of materials" and who at intervals apparently 
had a " definite aim"? Not infrequently the persistent 
lounger on grocery boxes, in railway stations, around pub- 
He buildings, and about public squares possesses one or all 
of these factors of success. 

Purpose, knowledge, and skill, though essential, are not 
in themselves a sufficient guarantee of success. They must 
be reenforced with a boundless enthusiasm, to insure a high 
degree of success. Emotion is the mainspring to action. 
It insures persistency of effort. It alone keeps one "on 
the job" against great distractions. Enthusiasm need not 
be of a violent form. It may be and usually should be 
quiet and submerged. Indeed, the best sort is of the 
quiet and intense kind. It must, however, possess the 
endeavorer. It must keep one at his task until he manipu- 
lates the materials he understands, in such a way as to realize 
his purpose. 

It is apparent from the above analysis that successful 
conscious endeavor involves a definite aim, a knowledge of 
the essential materials needed in the realization of the aim, 
skill in adjusting the materials to the requirements of the 



DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER FORMS OF DOING 7 

aim, and lastly an unabating enthusiasm. One possessed 
of these qualities can scarcely fail in any normal enterprise 
which engages his attention. 

Factors Peculiar to a Successful Teaching Act 

If one constructs a box or a series of boxes successfully, 
each of the factors referred to above is involved. Should 
he teach another to construct the box, what steps should he 
take? It is apparent that there is a decided difference in 
the two processes. The problem before us is : In what 
essential particulars does doing a thing differ from teaching 
some one to do that thing ? How do the factors involved in 
constructing a box differ from those involved in teaching 
some one to construct it ? 

One may be very successful in making boxes and yet have 
little or no capacity for teaching others to make them. 
Children may observe a box-maker make a box and through 
the process of conscious imitation learn to make an equally 
good box. The box-maker, however, does not teach the 
children to make the box any more than the squirrel, the 
cow, and the sheep teach those who imitate their voices. 
In all such cases the children learn, but they are not taught. 
Teaching consists in something more subtle than the ex- 
pression of ideas and the solution of problems subject to 
imitation. It involves a round of inter-related activities 
quite as marked and more difficult of comprehension than 
those concerned with an ordinary overt act. 

Social Aim. — The first of these activities, when teaching 
is properly directed, is a social aim. The school is an in- 
strument of society, created and maintained by it, first of 
all, for its own betterment. Buildings, appliances, books, 



8 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

and teachers are all utilized in the accomplishment of 
this end. When once this view is obtained it serves as a 
standard in deciding the suitability of the subject-matter. 
Without it the teacher is helpless in the choice of curricula. 
His only recourse is imitation. A teacher must have a 
very definite notion of what society wants the school to 
accomplish in order to avoid traditional imitation in 
the choice of subject-matter. The social aim is to the 
teacher what the barometer is to the weather expert and 
the polar star is to the navigator. A further analysis 
reveals other significant factors in the teaching process. 

Function and Structure of Subject-Matter. — It is not 
enough that the teacher know what society desires the 
child to become. He must be familiar also with the 
function and structure of the subject-matter employed. 
Scholarship is a prerequisite to successful teaching. There 
is no substitute for scholarship. The teacher must know 
what he should teach and understand the method of ex- 
posing it, if he would insure its transfer to others. The 
importance of this factor in the teaching process is evi- 
denced by the fact that teachers in all ages have stressed 
its relative value. Young teachers have been more con- 
cerned with the nature of subject-matter than with the na- 
ture of the child activity involved in its attainment, and 
probably always will be. It is quite certain that an under- 
standing of the importance of the other factors involved 
in teaching should in no wise lessen our respect for a sane 
understanding of the subject-matter. Scholarship will 
always be a vital and essential factor of good teaching. 

Knowledge of the Reactive Attitude of the Child. — A 
chicken while being chased indiscriminately by a small 
child ran through a gate into the inclosure where its com- 



DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER FORMS OF DOING 9 

panions were. Its going into the inclosure was in no way 
determined by the forethought of the child or conditioned 
by any systematic effort on his part. It chanced to run 
into the inclosure. On another occasion it may run in 
the opposite direction. In either case the child should not 
receive credit for determining the particular outcome of the 
chase. 

Suppose on the other hand an adult who has long cared 
for chickens undertakes to get a strayed chicken into its 
pen. He will probably get some corn and scatter it near 
the chicken. After a little he will scatter it nearer and 
nearer the gate until the victim of his strategy strolls through 
the opening into the inclosure. 

The results of these two acts are the same. The processes 
are decidedly different. The first result was one of chance. 
There was no forethought, no reflection on the reactive 
attitude of the chicken, no anything, except undirected and 
impulsive energy. The result was one of chance, not one 
of conscious effort. The second act was conditioned by 
experience. The performer had observed how chickens 
react when food is thrown before them. He had observed 
how they react when chased or when thrown at. A com- 
parison of the results had led him to the conclusion that 
chickens can be successfully "tolled" through gates and 
into pens by means of properly directed grains of corn. 
There was no chance in this act. There was a certainty, at 
least as much of a certainty as accompanies the ordinary 
plans of life. A knowledge of chicken behavior which 
results when various stimuli are applied was essential to the 
specific results acquired. 

In like manner child behavior may be controlled in these 
two ways at least. By chance one may create stimuli 



IO THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

which cause a child to do the desired thing, or to acquire 
the desired knowledge. In this case the child learns, but 
the producer of the chance stimuli does not teach. The 
teaching act consists of something more specific. It 
involves an understanding of the reactive attitude of the 
child. 

A knowledge of the child's reactive attitude, like that of 
the chicken, is gained directly or indirectly through ex- 
perience. One may attain it through introspecting his 
own response to stimuli when in the learning period. He 
may attain it through a comparison of the results secured 
and the stimuli employed in his endeavor to teach others. 
Through experimentation he may have measured carefully 
the relative value of stimuli in developing abilities. Indeed 
he may have acquired much insight into the secrets of 
child behavior through a systematic study of general and 
genetic psychology. It matters little how this knowledge 
is secured, but it is important that it be possessed by the 
teacher. 

Knowledge of Appropriate Stimuli. — A knowledge of 
an adequate social aim, a knowledge of subject-matter, 
and of how children react to their environment, though 
essential to good teaching, are not sufficient. A knowledge 
of appropriate stimuli is a fundamental factor also. 
Through the process of growth, the school has evolved 
economical ways and means of securing the desired reactions 
of children. These accumulated and perfected ways and 
means — devices, or forms of stimuli — constitute the tech- 
nique of classroom procedure. Skilled technique in the 
classroom is quite as important as it is in the hospital or 
in the laboratory. Forms of presenting subject-matter 
such as the lecture method, textbook method, developing 



DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER FORMS OF DOING II 

method, or combinations of these methods ; various types 
of questions ; forms of expression or statements employed 
in mathematics, or in language ; illustrations, dramatiza- 
tion, synthetic and analytic approaches to phonograms, 
and all the like — illustrate what is meant by a knowl- 
edge of the appropriate stimuli required to insure efficient 
teaching. 

Skillful Control of Stimuli. — Skill in directing appro- 
priate stimuli is also essential to good teaching. It is not 
sufficient to know that questions to be effective must be 
concrete, definite, simple, attractive, and problematic. 
Good teaching involves power to use such questions. It 
is not sufficient to know that self-activity is essential to 
the acquisition of power. A teacher should be skilled in 
the use of the devices which stimulate self-activity. It is 
not sufficient to know that comparison is a most effective 
device for stimulating interest and forcing generalizations. 
Teaching involves skill in forcing comparisons which pro- 
voke thought. It is not enough to know that illustrations 
are much more effective than explanations. The success- 
ful teacher is skilled in the use of illustrations. 

It is in this phase of the teaching act that experience 
counts for most. Skill involves the formation of habits 
through consistent and persistent effort. Long and con- 
sistent experience is needed to insure dependable and 
worthy skill in the use of teaching devices. 

Enthusiasm for Teaching. — One may control all of the 
above factors and yet be a relatively poor teacher. The 
last factor in the process of analysis, but certainly not the 
last in order of importance, is that of enthusiasm for the 
process of teaching. As a dynamic phase of conduct this 
factor is as important in times of peace as in times of war. 



12 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

It is as fundamental to success in teaching as to success in 
fighting. 

Many a scholarly teacher has been unable to provoke 
thought or arouse interest because of a lack of visible 
enthusiasm. It has been said that enthusiasm is con- 
tagious. Certainly its possession by the teacher arouses a 
wholesome, hearty cooperation on the part of children. 
Fortunate is the teacher who has an abundant enthusiasm 
in his work. It cannot take the place of scholarship, 
skill, and the other factors, for they are essential. It can 
and will supplement and energize them and make them 
function. 

We hear much of personality and of the appeal of sub- 
ject-matter in connection with the teacher. No well- 
informed person will attempt to belittle their importance 
in the teaching act. They are exceedingly vital. However, 
they can be reached only through the procedure outlined 
above. One can scarcely conceive of a teacher possessing 
a poor personality, so far as it pertains to teaching, or of 
his failing to cause the subject-matter to appeal to children, 
if he possesses a mastery of these teaching factors in a 
superlative degree. Such a possession insures success and 
it will go far to determine a desirable classroom personality. 

Summary. — Let us summarize the factors involved in 
solving an ordinary problem and those involved in suc- 
cessfully teaching one to solve such a problem. In the 
successful solution of an ordinary problem the performer 
has a definite aim, a knowledge of the materials, skill in 
adjusting the materials to the end in view, and enough 
enthusiasm to keep him on the job until the aim is realized. 

In order to teach successfully the teacher will need to 
control the factors involved in doing and in addition to these 



DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER FORMS OF DOING 1 3 

factors he will need to know the social aim of education, 
the structure and function of subject-matter, the reactive 
attitude of children, and the stimuli best suited to occasion 
the desired reactions ; to possess skill in the employment 
of these stimuli, and to have an unabating enthusiasm for 
the process of transforming children through these agencies 
from what they are to what they ought to become. 



CHAPTER II 
THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 

The Goal of Instruction. — In an, era of unparalleled 
economic progress in which scientific principles are applied 
with precision and results are measured in absolute units, 
it is only natural that one should hear much of educative 
aims and educative values. The application of business 
methods to the work of the schoolroom has forced the edu- 
cationist out into the open. In order to meet the practical 
demands made upon him he is obliged to define clearly the 
goal of instruction and its relation to social needs, and to 
point out clearly the educative processes by which it is 
attained most economically. 

In view of the fact that the exponents of educational 
theory have had different basic experiences and different 
training, it is not strange that there is a lack of complete 
agreement as to the function of public education. And while 
a complete agreement is somewhat remote, it is essential to 
progress that a working hypothesis based upon the best 
that is accepted in education be established for the purpose 
of rationalizing teaching. It is now widely recognized 
that the school was and is established by society to subserve 
its ends ; that these ends are relative and not absolute in 
quality, depending entirely upon the social conditions and 
upon the insight of the members who constitute the school 
units. 

14 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 15 

Dynamic Aspect of the Teacher's Aims. — It must be 
apparent at the outset that the ends or aims of instruction 
on the content side are dynamic in character, since society 
is constantly undergoing change. From the simple life of 
the tent-dweller and herder with its few yet significant 
responsibilities to the highly specialized life of the urbanite 
with definite social, economic, and political responsibili- 
ties, society has steadily grown more complex. With this 
increased complexity have come new demands and new 
standards of measurement, resulting in higher degrees of 
efficiency. Efficiency in one decade usually proves to be 
inefficiency in another. The musket was an efficient 
instrument of war in competition with the bow and arrow. 
It is decidedly inefficient in rivalry with the modern machine 
gun. To meet adequately the changing needs of society 
the standards of the school must be flexible and responsive 
to such needs. 

Static Aspect of the Teacher's Aims. — The aims of 
instruction are also static in character. Viewed from the 
form side, they are the same yesterday, to-day, and forever. 
Just as the the word "man" will always represent the human 
animal in spite of the fact that he is constantly evolving, 
so "efficiency," "achievement," "adjustment," and "com- 
plete living," if satisfactory forms of expression now, should 
always be satisfactory. 

An Apparent Diversity in the Aims of Instruction. — Ed- 
ucational philosophers have been groping about for an 
all-inclusive notion of the aim of education. Considering 
personal prejudices, differences in experience and ability, 
due to differences in social and natural inheritance, it is 
encouraging to note the strong resemblances in the educa- 
tional conceptions which have been held by relatively re- 



16 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

cent writers. More than fifty years ago, Herbert Spencer 
pointed out that it is the function of education to prepare 
one for " complete living." 1 Four decades later Professor 
Hanus similarly expressed the belief that " complete 
living" 2 is the aim of education. Continuing, he said, 
"To live completely means to be as useful as possible and 
to be happy. ... By usefulness is meant service, that is, 
any activity which promotes the material or the spiritual 
interests of mankind, one or both. -To be happy one must 
enjoy both his work and his leisure." Thorndike similarly 
held the aim of education to be " Good will to man, useful 
and happy lives, and noble enjoyment." 3 

O'Shea and Ruediger maintained that "adjustment" 
is the ultimate aim of education. The former said : "The 
real function of the school is to adjust the individual to 
his environment — physical, industrial, and social." 4 The 
latter expressed himself thus : "The aim of education may 
be defined as the adjustment of the individual to the life 
in which he must participate, this life being considered both 
in its objective and subjective aspects." 5 Viewing the same 
problem from a slightly different angle Bagley held that 
"Social efficiency ... is the standard by which the forces 
of education must select the experiences that are to be im- 
pressed upon the individual." 6 

Charters maintained that "Appreciation and control of 
the values of life" are the goal of educational effort. 7 

1 Education, Spencer. Page 31. 

2 Educational Aims and Educational Values, Hanus. Chap. I. 
8 Principles of Teaching, Thorndike. Chap. I. 

4 Education as Adjustment, O'Shea. Chaps. V and VI. 
6 Principles of Education, Ruediger. Chap. III. 

6 The Ethical End of Education and The Educative Process, Bagley. 

7 Methods of Teaching, Charters. Chap. I. 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 17 

Snedden with a later word upon the subject declared that 
the school should create ability to "produce and utilize 
production." x 

Social Efficiency a Working Aim. — A comparison of these 
statements of the aim of education forces the conclusion 
that there is a closer agreement than a casual examination 
indicates. These statements differ mainly in emphasis 
and in form of expression. All of these authors are keenly 
conscious of the social aspects of the school. The aim of 
each has a specific social reference. The distinctive social 
bearing of each of these aims indicates the universality of 
social efficiency as an aim of teaching. 

Social efficiency in the bulk is a mere vagary and as such 
is of little value to him who needs a definite, concrete 
standard with which to evaluate the results of teaching. 
Only when it has a definite reference for teachers in service 
is it effective as a factor in method. It is essential, there- 
fore, that social efficiency be understood in all its ramifica- 
tions and that it have " synthetic connections with all the 
individuals to which it refers," if it is to be a positive help 
to teachers in service. 

Social Needs 

One is economically efficient when his appreciation and 
control are in harmony with his economic needs. One is 
likewise socially efficient when his appreciation and con- 
trol are in harmony with the needs of the social unit of which 
he is a member. It is evident, therefore, that the school 
must be clearly aware of the fundamental needs of the social 
unit which maintains it before it can proceed effectively to 
educate the children of such a social unit. 
1 Educational Readjustment, Snedden. 



1 8 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

For a satisfactory solution of a problem in any field of 
endeavor one must go back to original sources for founda- 
tion principles. To discover the essential values of society 
he must exanune the fundamental needs of the social 
structure, since they are the Alpha and Omega of all 
organized educative and objective effort which the indi- 
viduals of the group manifest through some form of 
cooperation. 

The Interpretative Need 

A careful observation of organized society reveals the 
necessity of adequate physical and social adaptation. But 
adequate adaptation implies adequate interpretation. The 
interpretative need of society has precedence over its other 
needs since it is basic to all other needs. Until an individual 
is able to interpret rightly his natural and social environ- 
ment he is unable to contribute consistently to his own wel- 
fare and to that of his fellows. " Adequate interpretation" 
depends primarily upon basic experience and a mastery of 
the tools of interpretation. 

The Language Tool. — Since one cannot make rapid or 
extended progress without comparing the experiences of 
the race with his own, it is evident that practically the first 
step in formal education is to acquaint the child with the 
keys which unlock these experiences. Without the help of 
conventional symbols with which to interpret thought, 
each individual will need to start at the beginning, thus 
being barred from the experiences of others, the basic rung 
of progress. 

Basic Experiences. — It is absurd to think of a language 
without the experience or content side. A symbol implies 
both form and content. The early part of a child's life is 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 19 

spent in acquiring notions and in associating them with 
accepted oral symbols. In so far as these notions and sym- 
bols are in accord with accepted usage the child is making 
rapid progress in the control of its environment. The 
symbols introduced by the school are strangely new. 
Marks, now, as well as sounds are associated with the no- 
tions already in stock. The child's early school experiences 
represent his effort in making associations between written 
symbols and his ideas. Too often the method employed 
to aid him in acquiring the written symbol causes him to 
short-circuit the written with the oral symbol, thus making 
it little more than a "sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal." 
Many of the more recent devices in elementary reading are 
employed to correct some phase of this evil. 

From this early beginning, throughout the school life of the 
pupil, there is a constant effort on the part of the school to 
increase his efficiency in the use of language. Fundamental 
conventional symbols, basic to reading, writing, spelling, 
formal language lessons, composition, rhetoric, and grammar, 
are the tools which the child should have in his interpretative 
kit. With these tools fairly well mastered, the experiences 
of the race are accessible to him. Through a study of the 
natural sciences he learns to interpret the forces of nature ; 
through a study of mathematics he learns to control 
quantitative relations ; through a study of history, civics, 
literature, painting, sculpture, and music, he learns to 
interpret the thoughts and emotions of men. 

A Research Ideal. — Though skill in the use of a language 
in the broader sense will help one to interpret adequately 
the sciences and arts as organized and expressed by man, it 
will not necessarily lead to that more subtle and original 
interpretation of fundamental principles which is essential 



20 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

to discovery and invention. This form of interpretation 
depends upon a research ideal, or what recently has been 
termed the " scientific attitude of mind." To interpret 
the sciences as man understands them is to keep step only 
with human progress ; to interpret them in an original way 
is to be the vanguard of progress itself. 

One who possesses the research ideal in a particular field 
of thought is free from the traditional thought and emotions 
that hamper truth in that field. ' One so mentally con- 
stituted will never incite a mob, though he will demand an 
investigation of the charges preferred against the culprit. 
He will not subscribe to partisan politics simply because 
it is partisan. He will never be found in a band * of reli- 
gious enthusiasts who have solved the problem of religion 
in their own particular way ; neither will he imitate a moral 
code. Fundamental principles rather than popular accept- 
ance will influence the choice of his standards. Ethically 
he will search for and examine data that throw light 
upon the abiding principles underlying conduct. In brief, 
the scientific attitude of mind is a longing to search 
for truth, including an effective mental habit of approach- 
ing it. It is directly opposed to emotional attitudes, 
prejudices, instinctive impulses, and habitual judgments. 
Many have a clear notion of the importance of this 
quality of mind, though relatively few have attained it in 
a functional way. 

At the very end of more than a hundred years of brilliant 
achievement in the pure and applied sciences, it seems rather 
strange that this ideal does not prevail more extensively. 
The method most needed to create it is of such a character 
that it must be supplied by experts in educational 
psychology. One thing seems probable, however, and that 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 21 

is that method is a more significant factor than subject- 
matter, in its formation. It is also fairly well established 
that a research habit acquired in a specific field will not trans- 
fer in full to another field. For example, it is common 
observation that many professors in the universities who 
hold their positions and sustain their reputations on the 
research work which they have done, conduct their recita- 
tions in a way that is anything but conducive to the habit 
of research and self-activity. A research ideal, not. a re- 
search habit, will function in distinctly different types of 
work: 

The research work that is often done by assistants in 
the colleges and the universities has produced some excellent 
results. It has carried over to many of the elementary 
schools which are directing some experiments, the prime 
object of which is to establish this scientific ideal. We have 
scarcely begun in this field of endeavor. 

The interpretative need includes a mastery of the language, 
an abundance of basic experiences, and a research ideal. 

Skill an Important Need 

Though it is essential that each individual of society 
adequately interpret his natural and social environment, 
it is equally essential that he employ such knowledge for 
the betterment of society ; that he turn it to some worthy 
account. In order that this may be realized, more and more 
time has been given to the applied arts and sciences by 
educative agencies. 

The scientific output of the two centuries just passed, 
culminating in the brilliant achievements of the latter half 
of the 19th century, reveals the possibilities of our natural 



22 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

resources. The application of science has transformed the 
world, and by so doing has imposed new responsibilities 
upon society. This transformation has created a need 
for a high degree of skill on every hand. It is not strange, 
therefore, that in the schools throughout the country there 
is an increasing number of commercial high schools, depart- 
ments of agriculture, home economics, manual training, 
and trade schools, both elementary and secondary. These 
new departments are evidence that the school is endeavor- 
ing to develop this phase of social efficiency. 

Fundamentals Reduced to Habit. — The adjustment of the 
school to meet these needs has made those who guide the 
schools keenly sensitive to the importance of habit, either 
as mechanical skill or as a consistent mental attitude. In 
every subject there are certain fundamental elements upon 
which the rest of the structure depends. To neglect these 
is to insure wasted energy. One cannot proceed far in 
arithmetic without habituating the four fundamentals, 
tables in denominate numbers, the meaning of percentum, 
the relation of the base, rate, and percentage, and the rela- 
tion of the radius to the circumference. Neither can one 
proceed far in geography without knowing the directions, 
latitude, longitude, the physics of air and water currents, 
and principles involved in the distribution of water. It is 
unfortunate that there is so little accurate knowledge 
of what constitutes these essentials. The fundamentals 
should be as clearly marked out in geography, history, and 
physiology as they are in arithmetic. When clearly de- 
fined, as in arithmetic, it is the business of teachers to see 
to it that they are habituated. 

Within relatively recent years some worthy plans for 
the teaching of habits have been formulated. Professor 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 23 

James was a pioneer in this field. 1 The most complete 
method of teaching habits that has appeared is Rowe's 
work entitled Habit Formation and the Science of Teach- 
ing. 2 It was a much needed contribution in this field. 
This explicit work in the method of habit formation is 
an indication of the social need of accurate and unerring 
habits in the fundamentals. Method in habit formation 
is the response of the school to an economic need of 
society. This need finds expression in the trade schools, 
where skill in planning, executing, and manipulating 
materials and tools is required. Skill insures a maximum 
output of good quality with a minimum amount of energy 
expended. 

Socializing Need 

In a decidedly commercial age there is great danger that 
the socializing need of society may not be realized. Self- 
interest, economic competition, and specialization are likely 
to dwarf the broad humanitarian feelings which serve as 
the warp and woof of permanent social progress. Without 
social sympathy the ability to interpret, skill, and the 
power to satisfy other needs will not insure a permanent 
progress. 

With the application of steam, electricity, and gasoline, 
on land, water, and in the air, social conditions and possi- 
bilities have been modified and complicated beyond the 
limit of the most prophetic vision of one hundred years 
ago. Modern applications of natural forces have brought 
the wheat fields of Minnesota and the Dakotas, the orange 
groves of Florida and California, the vegetables of Texas 

1 Psychology, James. Chap. X. 

2 Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching, Rowe. 



24 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

and Tennessee, and the corn fields of Iowa, Kansas, and 
Illinois, through various distributing points, into close touch 
with each other, and thus made it possible for the producers 
of each to share the products of all. The necessity of a 
clearing house for all of these products has made such cities 
as Chicago, Duluth, Minneapolis, and St. Louis possible, 
and thus made necessary the high degree of specialization 
required to produce and transport the products of the soil 
and their accessories. 

The forms of specialization that have grown up as the 
immediate and direct result of the improved facilities for 
producing and transporting materials are closely related 
to the whole problem of social solidarity. Since improved 
methods of transportation have made great cities possible, 
they have been the means of throwing human beings together 
in great aggregations without suggesting how they are to 
be made agreeable to each other, happy with their lot, and 
helpful to the group of which they are a part, "The most 
immediate effect of specialization is that of individualism." 
It seems a case of history repeating itself. Were there 
countless acres of unclaimed lands, urbanization with its 
complicated problems would not be so alarming, but with 
the rapidly growing urban population, economic segregation 
is being enhanced and social vice is assuming alarming pro- 
portions. In these days of specialization, the "Jack at 
all trades" is exceedingly rare. Though energy has been 
conserved, the output increased, and its quality improved by 
specialization, nevertheless specialization has narrowed the 
perspective, and congealed the social sympathy of those 
who have become thus specialized. 

Economically, society should not and will not go back 
to the sickle and flail. In all probability it will become much 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 25 

more highly specialized than at present. It is up to the 
agencies of formal education to adapt themselves to the 
inevitable. They must counteract the effect of the changed 
order. The individual who performs a mere fraction of the 
world's labor is apt to develop an abnormal notion of the 
rights, both individual and social, of others. 

Social Sympathy. — Social sympathy is a response to 
social cooperation. When it is neglected or prevented, 
feelings become dwarfed and perverted. Altruistic feelings 
are the by-product of contributory acts that are willingly 
exerted for the welfare of others, without any thought of 
personal gain. An intelligent social sympathy is made 
possible only through direct contact with the life work of 
others. Without such a contact one's attitude is sure to be 
sentimental, indifferent, or unsympathetic. One who has 
never pressed the shovel until the blisters formed or bent 
the back until it ached, cannot correctly sympathize with 
the miners who ask for a shorter day and a higher wage. 
The urbanite who has taken his agricultural course from 
an observation car, is apt to think of the farmer asa" tight- 
wad," who sits about and enjoys waving fields of grain and 
lowing herds, and consequently is undeserving of the enor- 
mous prices which he exacts from his city brother. On 
the other hand the devotee of the farm who has only 
seen the city through the show window or the beautifully 
kept lawns, is sure to feel that the path of the urbanite 
is one of ease and luxury made possible by his exorbitant 
prices. 

With these social abnormalities flourishing, it is the busi- 
ness of those who are responsible for the training of future 
generations to recognize and apply principles that make for 
a social solidarity. The school has already anticipated 



26 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

this problem and is making some headway in its solution. 
It has set for itself the task of supplying the great basic ex- 
periences from which social sympathy springs, those which 
specialization is denying the adult. It was largely for this 
purpose that manual training, including all forms of wood 
and metal work, domestic science and the household arts, 
economic nature study and scientific agriculture, printing, 
modeling, and work in textiles were introduced. Doubtless 
they help young people find themselves and thus often give 
a bent to future vocation, but at the same time they are 
the means of creating a social sympathy which will function 
for the betterment of the group regardless of later vocational 
limitations. 

The Ethical Need 

One may have the ability to discover truth, he may be 
skilled in the applied sciences and arts, he may have a sym- 
pathetic understanding of the work and rights of others, and 
yet be a menace to society. Indeed some of our greatest 
criminals have had one or more of these qualities highly 
developed. There is a manifest need that one's acts be 
consistent with his judgment. That "ye shall know the 
truth and the truth shall make you free," is only subjec- 
tively true. Shakespeare gave expression to this thought 
in the character and speech of Hamlet. The more clearly 
Hamlet saw the truth the less able was he to realize it. 
He chided himself thus : 

"I am pigeon-livered and lack gall 
To make oppression bitter, or ere this 
I should have fatted all the region kites 
With this slave's offal. Bloody, bawdy villain ! 
Remorseless, treacherous, lecherous, kindless villain ! 
O Vengeance ! 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 27 

Why, what an ass am I ! This is most brave, 
That I, the son of a dear father murder'd, 
Prompted to my revenge by heaven and hell, 
Must . . . unpack my heart with words, 
And fall a cursing like a very drab, 
A scullion!" 

Good intentions will not insure the proper ethical conduct. 
It is essential that judgment be supported with adequate 
volitional stimuli. Moral efficiency includes doing one's 
duty as well as knowing and feeling one's duty. 

Ideals and Prejudices. — For effective ethical stimuli we 
must turn to ideals and prejudices in which the emotional 
element is more pronounced. These ideals and prejudices 
must be sufficiently strong to crystallize ideas and force 
them into action in order to determine the character of 
conduct. In this connection Professor Bagley says: "In 
essence, an ideal is an idea that controls conduct in virtue 
of its emotional warmth rather than in virtue of its intel- 
lectual clearness. . . } 

"This distinction is difficult to define in accurate terms, 
but it is clear enough from a practical standpoint. A 
man may know or believe, as a matter of intellectual judg- 
ment, that civic purity, for example, is essential to the high- 
est type of civic life, but even with fraud and corruption 
rife in the local politics of his community, he may not take 
the slighest step toward remedying conditions. In other 
words, the intellectual belief is not sufficient in itself to spur 
him to action. Suppose, however, that civic corruption 
menaces some fundamental interest of life, . . . threatens 
to destroy one's business or reduce the value of his real 
estate, or invade his home, immediately his idea of its evil 

1 Educative Values, Bagley. 



28 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

character becomes a strong positive ideal in favor of civic 
virtue, which incites him to effort towards its realization. 
The emotional force engendered by the stimulation of a 
fundamental instinct has gathered about the idea and 
turned it into a definite dynamic standard, a positive 
prejudice in favor of a virtue, the rationality of which he 
has always admitted." 

It is quite certain that there are many ethical conclusions 
which the race has found too fundamental to admit of 
experimentation by its youth. It has acquired these ex- 
periences at a great expense and suffice it for the child to 
take its conclusions on faith. It is the business of educa- 
tional forces to generate sufficiently strong ideals and preju- 
dices in the young to safeguard their after life and conse- 
quently insure protection of the group as a whole. I 
refer to such universally accepted virtues as honesty, 
industry, fidelity, and chastity. The person who questions 
the worth of these virtues has little comprehension of social 
responsibility. 

The welfare of society demands that these virtues be 
controlled by such dominating ideals and prejudices that 
there will always be the same inevitable reaction when a 
temptation occurs. These reactions must be automatic 
and positive. The clerk who permits himself to think of 
the good use he can make of his employer's money is running 
a desperate risk; the person who constantly says to him- 
self that the world owes him a living, ultimately is inviting 
poorhouse supervision ; the politician who permits himself 
to consider the possibility of using a public trust for private 
gain is far on the road to corrupt methods ; and the young 
woman who permits herself to question the social sanction 
of chastity will need greater strength of character than 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 29 

she who acts automatically in accord with the social 
sanction. 

These virtues have cost the race entirely too much to be 
experimented with. Educative forces, and we have the 
school especially in mind, must create emotional controls 
sufficiently strong to safeguard them. Disloyal conduct 
during the World War is indicative of the fact that what we 
need most is not more intelligence, but higher ideals and 
stronger prejudices of the right sort. 

Hawthorne, in "The Great Stone Face," set forth in no 
uncertain language the effect of an ideal upon conduct, 
and likewise the effect of conduct upon an ideal. Through 
long years of watching and expectancy Ernest developed a 
strong passion for the Great Stone Face. "So strong was 
this passion," the author tells us, "that finally his face, 
transformed by it, assumed a grandeur of expression so 
full of benevolence, that the Poet, by an irresistible impulse, 
threw up his hands, and shouted : ' Ernest is himself the 
likeness of the Great Stone Face.' " 

Human thoughts and acts, whether they be directed 
toward unworthy ends or toward noble purposes, will 
ultimately establish a background of feeling which is a 
powerful force in the determination of human motives and 
hence of human conduct. It behooves the agencies of 
formal education to see to it that the fundamental human vir- 
tues be held constantly before those who are being educated 
that right feelings be engendered. Doubtless method is more 
potent than subject-matter in fixing these ideals and 
prejudices. Certain subjects and practices are especially 
valuable in this connection. Biography, literature, civ- 
ics, school organizations, schoolroom methods, and the 
teacher are all potent influences for better conduct controls. 



30 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

The Culture Need 

An introspection of the motives that have stimulated 
educative effort down through the ages reveals a marked 
emphasis upon what is generally termed culture. Society- 
has always felt a need for the cultural value in educa- 
tion, though it has not always been consistent in attaining 
it. Since cultivated men have generally been familiar with 
the classics the inference has been that the classics are the 
main source of " culture." This erroneous inference has 
been handed down from generation to generation with 
sufficient vitality to control largely the content of the 
curriculum. Doubtless the classics were the only organized 
source of contact which cultivated men had immediately 
following the awakening of the Renaissance, and were 
therefore the only source of culture. By no other means 
could one sit at the feet of Plato, Aristotle, and Dante, 
or converse with Cicero and Virgil. 

The intellectual awakening of the seventeenth, eighteenth, 
and nineteenth centuries, resulting in scientific research, 
and in a broad application of the sciences and arts, trans- 
formed social and economic conditions, and thus gave to 
culture a healthy tone and a vigorous content. It was no 
longer necessary to go back to Aristotle for natural philos- 
ophy, or to Solon for guiding principles in government. 
Truth unfolded on every hand. Man reacted intelligently 
to natural law, and became conscious of his intricate social 
obligations. He ceased to imitate traditional practices, 
and began to construct his own philosophy of life in terms 
of the generally accepted principles of his day. 

Culture began to be interpreted differently in the light 
of new conditions. As Professor Hanus has pointed out, 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 31 

" culture now means, primarily, the capacity to under- 
stand, appreciate, and react on the resources and problems 
of modern civilization. These resources and problems are 
found in the preservation and improvement of the health, 
physical vigor, and physical well-being of the race ; in 
modern government ; in modern industry and commerce ; 
in modern literature and languages ... in history . . . and in 
the art treasures of all time." 1 While the classics are still 
believed to afford contact with cultivated persons and to 
this extent supply opportunities for " culture," it is not 
generally believed to-day that they constitute the only 
means of culture. With the decline in the need for the 
information offered by the classics, they were justified on 
other grounds. It was argued that they were especially 
rich in the stimuli that develop mental power. Hence 
" culture" began to mean power or capacity, and " cultural," 
objectively applied, meant quality to stimulate mental 
growth. Though no one is willing to deny that the classics 
stimulate growth, few indeed are willing to grant that they 
are richer in such stimuli than are the applied sciences and 
the mechanical arts. 

It is as great a mark of culture in these days of scientific 
knowledge to maintain good health and physical vigor as to 
be familiar with Greek and Latin ; to understand and apply 
natural law as to be conversant with the laws of the Medes 
and the Persians ; to eat, dress, sleep, and spend one's 
leisure intelligently and gracefully as to know the distinct 
types of Greek art. 

Culture as now interpreted means more than ability to 
"understand" and "appreciate," it means the skill and 
disposition to do, as well, — the power to react intelligently 

1 Educational Aims and Educational Values, Hanus. 



32 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

in response to stimuli. Our secondary curricula are grad- 
ually being adjusted to this end. The old " cultural sub- 
jects" are being supplemented and occasionally displaced 
by subjects which more adequately prepare one to solve 
the practical problems of daily life. This change is in 
response to the saner notion of what constitutes " cul- 
ture," and it is well that it is so. "When a child has en- 
tered into its inheritance, physical, scientific, literary, 
aesthetic, institutional, and religious — then we must use the 
word 'culture' to signify the state of being that has been 
attained." To the extent that the children of the public 
schools reach this goal, to that extent can it be said that 
the school is meeting the "cultural need" of society. 

Summary. — The aim of education in its broadest sense 
involves both a personal and an impersonal, or social, aspect. 
This twofold character of the aim of education is the source 
of the disagreement as to what this aim is. Since society 
as such is the only agency sustaining organized educational 
effort there is no need for considering the personal, or indi- 
vidual, aspect in a scheme of public education. Thus inter- 
preted, "social efficiency" seems to include what society 
has in mind when it taxes its members for the support of 
public education. 

The aim of education should be adjusted to social needs 
and should change its content with the change in these needs. 
Therefore a clear understanding of "social efficiency" 
depends upon an understanding of the needs of society. 
Society needs : 

i. That its individual members interpret their environ- 
ment adequately. 

2. That each member be skilled in one or more of the 
applied sciences — be skilled in some contributing vocation. 



THE AIMS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHING 33 

3. That each member have some contacts with the great 
basic occupations in order to have the proper sympathy with 
those so engaged. 

4. That each member have ideals and prejudices suffi- 
cient to safeguard the fundamental virtues upon which the 
social structure stands. 

5. That each member enter sufficiently into his physical, 
scientific, literary, aesthetic, institutional, and religious 
inheritance to live completely in the fullest sense. 



CHAPTER III 
THE GROWTH OF SUBJECT-MATTER 

The Acid Test of Subject-Matter. — One proceeds but a 
little way in an endeavor to provide suitable materials for a 
course of study before he is confronted with the fundamental 
questions : Is this subject-matter worth while ? Will it make 
a strong appeal to those for whom it is intended ? 

The Twofold Aspect of Worth-Whileness. — The function 
of subject-matter may be considered both subjectively and 
objectively. When such controls as knowledge, habits, 
ideals, prejudices, tastes, and attitudes are uppermost in 
the mind of the teacher, the subjective aspect of subject- 
matter is emphasized. When social needs are under con- 
sideration the objective aspect of subject-matter is 
stressed. 

The worth- whileness of subject-matter in the last analysis 
must be determined on the basis of social needs. There 
is a surplus of subject-matter which will appeal strongly to 
the pupil, and which will establish the desired controls. 
The problem involved is one of selecting from this surplus 
of materials those of marked social significance, and of 
organizing them into a system which will make a progressive 
appeal to the pupil and which will arouse in him a desire 
for further investigation. 

Dynamic Character of Subject-Matter Objectively Con- 
sidered. — The problem of evaluating subject-matter is 

34 



THE GROWTH OF SUBJECT-MATTER 35 

ever a new one. Because of the rapid changes taking place 
in the social structure there is a constant demand for new 
adjustments. It therefore behooves teachers who feel a 
responsibility for the initial adjustments of their pupils to 
take frequent inventories of subject-matter which in no low 
degree determines these adjustments. 

Change in subject-matter and the effect of such change 
upon classroom instruction are apparent on every hand. 
The older works on physics give a full discussion of the steam 
engine, but fail to discuss the dynamo, motor, and gasoline 
engine. Industrial evolution has made a place for the 
dynamo, motor, and the gasoline engine, and consequently 
writers of recent books in this field have included them. 

When exploration and discovery are the major occupa- 
tions of a nation its geographers are concerned mainly with 
place geography. Under these conditions the direction and 
extent of routes, the location and size of areas, and the 
location of boundaries constitute no little part of geo- 
graphical material. 

After a nation has sown its "wild oats," so to speak, its 
interest shifts to causes of natural phenomena, of political 
and industrial conditions, and to the availability of its 
natural resources and products. Fertility of the soil, 
variety and extent of crops, mineral and timber resources, 
ways and means of transforming raw materials into finished 
products and of transporting such products, become facts 
of much value to the children who expect to participate in 
such a life. 

Origin of Subject-Matter 

Any serious attempt to select subject-matter for the 
schools of any generation must take into account the needs 



36 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

which occasion such subject-matter. To the extent that 
the needs of any generation which give rise to subject- 
matter are identical with present needs, to that extent 
will the materials of a former generation be adequate for 
the present generation. 

Desire to Know, a Fundamental Need. — • Pedagogical 
literature discloses two distinct theories as to the classes 
of needs which have determined the organic development 
of subject-matter. One of these theories is based upon the 
notion that man is by nature imaginative, speculative, 
groping, systematic, and logical. A logical corollary to 
this theory is that man naturally organizes fragmentary 
knowledge into systems regardless of any conscious utili- 
tarian need of such a system. 

In this connection Professor Judd says: "The behavior 
[of primitive man] was dominated by fantastic imagina- 
tion. Primitive society put its members through the most 
onerous tasks to satisfy needs which were entirely of the 
imagination's making. To understand primitive customs 
one has to study primitive myths." l 

According to this theory, beliefs, creeds, the arts, and 
the sciences developed from vague imaginative beginnings 
into sane and logical productions because of the " clash of 
the wits" of the individuals of the group and of the groups 
themselves. These intellectual clashes usually resulted in 
a partial or complete acceptance of the theory which made 
the greatest intellectual appeal. "Each tribe was content 
to believe its own myths," says Professor Judd, "until it 
began to come into intimate relation with other tribes. 
Then the clash of social opinion made men skeptical. There 
is nothing more jarring to one's primitive scientific theories 
1 Psychology of High-School Subjects, Judd. Chap. XIV. 



THE GROWTH OF SUBJECT-MATTER 37 

than to find that one cannot persuade his neighbor. So it 
was with the Greek thinkers. At first each developed his 
own views without restraint, but soon he met some one who 
had evolved other views. Now came the clash of wits 
which characterizes that period of Greek skepticism that 
introduced the first great constructive period of western 
thought. During the period of skepticism the Greeks 
learned that thought, to be productive, must be critical as 
well as imaginative. 

"Thus, through social clashes followed by revision, 
internal or theoretical consistency was established. This 
criterion of internal consistency is the one which is used 
even to-day in testing much of our scientific thinking. The 
man of science is willing to go through a long and laborious 
comparison of different ideas for the purpose of testing 
their internal consistency. It is only in the latest and most 
elaborate stages of science and industry that internal consistency 
and practical applicability are both recognized as equally 
valid methods of testing thinking" 

Solution of Practical Problems a Fundamental Need. — 
The other theory of the origin of subject-matter is based 
upon the thesis that man creates it to solve his practical 
problems. In defense of this theory Professor Charters 
says: "New subject-matter is formed when difficulties 
which cannot be handled by subject-matter already 
formed are met. Or in other words it is created in 
response to some need. For instance, it is commonly held 
that botany had its early beginning in sickness and disease, 
for whose cure the tribal women collected herbs and studied 
them. The science of chemistry sprang from alchemy 
through the desire of man to find a rapid means of changing 
the baser metals into gold. When the Nile swept away 



38 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

the line fences of the ancient Egyptians each year, 
geometry was invented to determine the boundaries of the 
fenceless farms. Astronomy, in the form of astrology, 
probably began in an effort to foretell disasters and good 
fortune." x 

These two very different theories of the origin of materials 
which have been advanced by two recent and influential 
writers of textbooks on educational theory, seem to blight 
any hope one may have " of a science of education. If 
teachers cannot agree upon the agencies which create 
subject-matter, is it reasonable to believe they will agree 
upon the subject-matter to be used in the schools and the 
method to be employed in its presentation ? 

A Compromise View of the Origin of Subject-Matter. — 
Before throwing our hands up in despair let us extract some 
wholesome philosophy from Saxe's little poem, "The Blind 
Men and the Elephant." 

THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT 

It was six men of Indostan 

To learning much inclined, 
Who went to see the Elephant 

(Though all of them were blind) , 
That each by observation 

Might satisfy his mind. 

The First approached the Elephant, 

And, happening to fall 
Against his broad and sturdy side, 

At once began to bawl : 
"God bless me ! but the Elephant 

Is very like a wall!" 

1 Methods of Teaching, Charters. Chap. II. 



THE GROWTH OF SUBJECT-MATTER 39 

The Second, feeling of the tusk, 

Cried : "Ho ! what have we here 
So very round and smooth and sharp ? 

To me 'tis mighty clear 
This wonder of an Elephant 

Is very like a spear !" 

The Third approached the animal, 

And, happening to take 
The squirming trunk within his hand, 

Thus boldly up and spake : 
"I see," quoth he, "the Elephant 

Is very like a snake I" 



And so these men of Indostan 

Disputed loud and long, 
Each in his own opinion 

Exceeding stiff and strong, 
Though each was partly in the right, 

And all were in the wrong ! 

— John G. Saxe. 

If educational theorists seem to differ it is probable 
that they have approached the educational elephant from 
slightly different angles. Broad experience and a sympa- 
thetic attitude is needed to correlate theories which at 
first seem strangely contradictory. 

The instinctive desire to win, the angle of perspective 
from which men view their environment, the ebb and flow 
of emotions, a difference in aims and basic experiences, and 
a wholesome individualism lead educational writers to over- 
stress one aspect of education and to slight or wholly ignore 
other aspects equally significant. 

While it seems reasonably certain that Greek philosophy 
sprang from the "fantastic imagination" of the elect of 
the Greek people and was "tempered into theoretical con- 



40 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

sistency" through the " clash of wits" and afterward was 
considered valid by virtue of its application, it does not 
follow that all subject-matter had its rise in this way. 
The probability is that most of the materials taught in the 
early geographies were accumulated government reports 
from various seamen, explorers, and discoverers, inter- 
spersed with theory for the purpose of securing unity. It 
is very probable that those who needed this information 
were the ones who sought it, just as commercial knowledge 
was sought in the private commercial schools of this coun- 
try a generation ago and still is to some extent. 

Most of the knowledge which constitutes modern physi- 
ology, hygiene, and sanitation was acquired by the medical 
profession in its effort to solve the perplexing problems 
which it faced daily. It was not the " fantastic imagina- 
tion" which was responsible for the isolation, controlled 
culture, and the toxine of the bacilli which are now well 
understood. The fact is it was a desire to find some 
practical way of alleviating human ills which drove men to 
search out and control these smallest individuals of the 
organic world. 

The science of agriculture could never have been de- 
veloped on the frontier nor on the streets of a great city. 
It sprang up in a fragmentary way in the older and more 
thickly populated agricultural communities. So long as a 
country is new and vast tracts of land are to be had for 
the asking, the schools show little concern in a scientific 
knowledge of soils or a balanced ration for animals. 

When, however, the frontier has vanished and farms have 
been abandoned because of low fertility ; when consumption 
increases more rapidly than production, men seriously 
concern themselves with the problems of production. The 



THE GROWTH OF SUBJECT-MATTER 41 

wiser persons of the social group begin to lie awake nights 
meditating over ways of improvement. Experiments are 
conducted in feeding, in planting, in improving soil fer- 
tility and, in fact, in every phase of farm life for the pur- 
pose of improving farm conditions. When the results of 
these investigations are compiled and edited, subject-matter 
in agriculture is at hand. 

As implied above, the subject-matter of the commercial 
branches had its inception in the private schools. No 
stronger evidence can be had of the social stress back of sub- 
ject-matter than its association with private schools. These 
institutions were in the school business for profit. Conse- 
quently it was presented only when there was a strong 
demand for it. After the demand for new subject-matter 
becomes great, the public schools usually sense it and 
finally incorporate it in the curriculum. 

On the other hand, it is equally evident that much of 
our material is the result of man's instinctive desire to 
know more, and to organize fragmentary knowledge for 
the purpose of revealing to others what he believes. For 
example, geology, astronomy, botany, zoology as pure 
sciences were created because man became curious about 
his environment. By means of comparison he began to 
discern likenesses and differences. Principles were dis- 
covered and a new organization founded upon these prin- 
ciples was created. 

It is instinctive to want to know what one's associates 
do not know, and to want to tell them about the new 
possession. Those who have these instincts to a marked 
degree will travel to the farthermost parts of the earth to 
seek knowledge and will travel no less far to reveal it to 
their fellow men. They will put forth extraordinary 



42 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

energy in following a new line of thought to its satisfactory 
conclusion. These instincts, coupled with ability, are 
responsible for much of the thought that has concerned 
mankind. These instincts are prominent in teachers of 
marked success. 

This twofold view of the origin of subject-matter gives 
an educational perspective which is interesting to ad- 
ministrator and teacher, alike. The child's native and 
social needs demand material which has been sifted by 
both of these processes. On the one hand, subject- 
matter should stimulate the imagination, arouse interest 
in principles, and lead one to enjoy analytic and synthetic 
processes. On the other hand, it should touch the motor 
springs to action and result finally in practical knowledge, 
ideals, and worthy habits. 

This twofold aspect of the origin of subject-matter 
means that materials selected for the schools must have 
both a social and a pedagogical sanction. It means that 
formal material must be considered, first, from the stand- 
point of the social service it will render; and secondly, 
from the standpoint of the appeal it will make to the con- 
structive imagination of the child. It means that he who 
is responsible for the course of study will need to stand 
for fundamental psychic principles, a good organization, 
a close sequence of topics, and a unifying purpose. Further- 
more it means that he will need to check materials in terms 
of social needs. He will need to clean house constantly 
in order to remove materials long since worthy of the edu- 
cational scrap pile and to substitute much-needed materials 
for them. 

The constant need of a readjustment of subject-matter 
and method, and the frequent reticence of teachers towards 



THE GROWTH OF SUBJECT-MATTER 43 

this readjustment, arouse an interest in the negative forces 
which are responsible in no small measure for the slow evolu- 
tion of subject-matter. 

Agencies Which Operate to Conserve Subject- 
Matter 

It is quite as interesting to observe the agencies which 
operate to retain subject-matter in the course of study- 
long after the need for it has passed away, as it is to ob- 
serve those agencies which operate to keep subject-matter 
in harmony with the shifting needs of the group for which 
it is intended. 

Imitation a Cause of Conservation of Subject-Matter. — ■ 
The presence of imitation in human nature is the most 
persistent of the conservative agencies. Teachers are in- 
clined to teach the texts they were taught and in much the 
same manner. Identical forms, similar procedure, and like 
interpretations and applications are passed along from 
teacher to teacher with wonderful precision and fidelity. 

As one finds faithful reproductions of northern plants 
isolated on mountain tops in semitropical regions, so he 
finds faithful reproductions of a once needed subject- 
matter and method left isolated in the curriculum through 
failure of those who are responsible for it to keep in touch 
with the social and pedagogical changes which have taken 
place. 

More than seventy years after Horace Mann had preached 
against the folly of the alphabet method of teaching reading, 
a committee in charge of the educational survey in Ohio 
found a few teachers still applying faithfully the alphabet 
method of their fathers. 



44 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Recession from Content to Form a Cause of Retention. — 
The natural tendency to recede mentally from the content 
to the form through which the content finds expression 
is another conservative agency in education. Students of 
language often allow themselves to become disciples of 
some particular technique, or phraseology. Students of 
arithmetic, geography, and history sometimes become wor- 
shipers of the method employed and lose sight of the end 
to be attained. This natural tendency to substitute the 
form for the thing which it reveals is not infrequently a 
millstone around the throat of progress. 

Group Teaching a Cause of Conservation of Subject-Matter. 
— Perhaps no single agency has been quite so effective in 
delaying the natural evolutionary progress of subject- 
matter as that of group teaching. Group teaching, while 
meritorious in many ways and for practical reasons quite 
necessary, tends strongly to stamp approval upon fact 
getting instead of upon getting the relative value of the fact 
obtained. It requires little misapprehension to go from 
"fact getting" to word juggling, which easily becomes a 
fetish. Effective methods of teaching will prevent these 
serious consequences. 

A Sense of Relative Values is Necessary to Progress. — 
One's sense of relative values determines in a large measure 
the modification he effects in the curriculum. One who 
sanctions a sailor's geography; a history of war and con- 
quest instead of a history of the activities of peace ; a 
literature dealing with erotic, morbid, and fantastic out- 
bursts of character instead of the well-balanced, con- 
sistent, and self-sacrificing endeavor of noble men and 
women ; a physiology of structure instead of a physiology 
which stresses those processes upon which happiness and 



THE GROWTH OF SUBJECT-MATTER 45 

efficiency depend ; an arithmetic emphasizing an applica- 
tion of principles instead of principles for application, — 
fails to sense the relation of the school to individual de- 
velopment and social service. 

Persons responsible for public-school curricula can ill 
afford to be indifferent to social needs. They should recog- 
nize the fact that the materials of the curriculum are in- 
tended as means to an end and not as an end in themselves. 
The first test to which subject-matter should be submitted 
is that of worth-whileness in the sense of meeting social 
needs. When it has. stood this test, it is then time to con- 
sider it from the standpoint of the appeal it will make to 
the child. 

The Child Factor in the Evolution of Subject-Matter. — 
With an improved knowledge of general psychology, with 
improved methods of determining children's reactions to 
subject-matter, with improved methods of determining 
the progress of children and the factors involved in that 
progress, there has come a deepened sense of the need of a 
better knowledge of the relation of subject-matter to the 
child's interest. 

This deepened sense of the finer adjustment of subject- 
matter to the interests of children has already borne fruit 
a hundredfold, and consequently has been no little factor 
in determining change in subject-matter. 

Adaptation of Subject-Matter to the Child's 
Interests 

No better examples of the adaptation of subject-matter to 
the instinctive tendencies of the child can be cited than those 
of reading and arithmetic. Excepting the so-called method 



46 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

readers, which in reality are methodized and not psychologized 
materials, most of our newer readers are. fine examples of 
the adjustment which has taken place under the inspiration 
of this point of view. 

Present Status of Reading. — The primer and the first 
and second readers of the newer sets of readers are ex- 
amples of the recognition which has been given to the child's 
predominating interests. The pupil fresh from the kinder- 
garten or the home has had a touch of make-believe and 
fancy. His imagination knows no bounds. Like the 
fabled frost it travels far and near in boundless space. 
The folklore and fairy tales of these first books are ad- 
mirably suited to nurture this most fundamental psychic 
process and to utilize it in mastering the technique and in 
forming the habits necessary for further progress. 

By the time the third and fourth grades are reached the 
imagination is no less marked, but it has reached another 
phase of development. In the preceding years the plausi- 
bility of the "tale" was never questioned. In fact the 
question of probability never arose. In these later grades 
reason and experience begin to assert themselves. Tricks 
are still enjoyed but they must approximate the truth. 
Practical jokes are immensely enjoyed in these grades, 
especially jokes played upon animals or by animals. This 
period is peculiarly adapted to animal stories. The Story 
of a Donkey, The Story of a Toad, most of the Mother West- 
wind Stories, Merry Animal Tales, and some of Thomp- 
son Seton's and Warner's stories are admirably suited to 
third and fourth-grade children. The animal hero is of 
rare interest to these children. 

The psychic outlook, so far as reading is concerned, is 
somewhat changed by the time the intermediate grades are 



THE GROWTH OF SUBJECT-MATTER 47 

reached. Heroes still hold a prominent place in the child's 
interest. The animal hero, however, yields in interest to 
the human hero. Greek myths and similar stories receive 
an astonishingly hearty response. Robin Hood is a fine 
example of the sort of hero that is enjoyed by children of 
this age. 

Unfortunately the terminology of these stories offers a 
serious handicap to their usefulness. Literature of this 
kind is full of difficult words which are seldom used in any 
other connection. Perhaps a wise revision of these stories 
for the purpose of ehminating unusual words is advisable. 
At any rate this particular difficulty should be partially 
or wholly removed, either by revision or by a better se- 
lection. The materials for the grammar grades have kept 
pace with the psychic development of the child. Heroes 
are still in demand. Neither the animal hero nor the 
human hero who dominates and controls for personal and 
selfish reasons will do. The heroes of Tennyson's Idylls 
of the King meet a hearty response. Moreover, the young 
people of the grammar grades are already contemplating 
life's problems. They are interested in most phases of 
literature which portray human endeavor in pursuit of 
lofty ideals. 

Most of our newer readers have been adapted either con- 
sciously or unconsciously to these psychic outcrops of the 
children of the elementary school, who are on their forward 
march toward racial ideals and personal and social re- 
sponsibility. 

Present Status 0} Arithmetic — Those who are responsible 
for the newer arithmetics, especially the books for primary 
children, have shown much appreciation of the psychic 
needs of children relative to the mastery of numbers. The 



48 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

materials have been made much more concrete and at- 
tractive. The sequence of materials to problems is closer 
and the employment of materials within the experiences 
of the children is much more common, all of which mark 
a decided advance in formal number work. 

Present Status of Other Subjects. — Other subjects re- 
veal a marked adjustment of material to meet the psychic 
needs of children. The old deductive grammar is all 
but gone, physiology has been reorganized in the in- 
terests of children, historical materials have been vitalized 
through the use of letters and stories of the children of 
earlier times. Even spelling and writing are recognized 
as human instruments for the conveyance of thought in- 
stead of rare accomplishments through which one can 
achieve renown. 

The process of reconstruction based upon the social and 
psychic needs of children has been steady and commendable. 
It must ever go forward. Social needs will continue to 
change and a better insight into the laws of mind will 
necessitate constant adjustment of subject-matter. A 
halt means a stay of progress, while a continuous adjust- 
ment of materials in response to new conditions is progress 
itself. 



CHAPTER IV 
ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 

Living Organisms. — An examination of simple plants 
and animals leads one to the conviction that the distinct 
parts of each are in harmony with the welfare of the whole. 
When parts in a complex arrangement are so conditioned 
that they work in accord with the purpose of the greater 
whole, the whole is an organism and its structure is organic. 
All lif e operates and reveals itself through organisms. From 
the simple structure of the amoeba to the- highly complex 
and beautifully adapted organism of man, we find pro- 
cesses conditioned and determined by the character of the 
life that is revealed. 

In the light of biological science it is sufficient to suggest 
that the parts of living organisms have been developed and 
assembled through the constructive processes of hereditary 
variation and selection. The law of the survival of the 
fittest determines the varying structures of living organisms. 

Inanimate Organisms. — Not only does life manifest 
itself directly through the organism which nurtures and 
reveals it, but it reaches out through this organism to its 
immediate environment which it adapts and arranges for 
the purpose of extending its freedom. Thus man has laid 
hold of his environment and organized it. He has cut trees 
with which to construct houses, built boats and bridges 
with which to cross streams, made tools with which to 

49 



50 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

cultivate the soil, invented symbols with which to convey 
thought, and arranged experiences with which to uplift his 
fellow men. 

Back of this external arrangement of the things of his 
environment are unmistakable signs of purpose. He ar- 
ranges, rearranges ; builds, destroys ; combines and 
recombines in accord with his shifting ideals and purposes. 
He arranges the stones, mortar, and timber of his environ- 
ment in a way to realize a certain purpose and he calls the 
arrangement a house. He arranges materials in a way to 
realize another purpose and he proclaims the arrangement 
a barn ; and still a different arrangement to fulfill another 
purpose, and he. has a bridge. In each case the arrangement 
is a structure because it reveals purpose. It is an organism 
because the parts have a distinct function as well as a general 
and cooperative function in the realization of the purpose 
of him who assembled them. The ideas — houseness, 
barnness, and bridgeness — were the forces which assembled 
and unified the parts of which the prescribed and conven- 
tional forms are composed. 

Inanimate organisms of human origin spring from the 
brain of man and vary with his states of mind. His aims 
and purposes are the initial forces which assemble materials 
from the remote parts of the earth and arrange them into 
organic structures. New structures have sprung up in 
this way to meet his needs. 

Not only are man's aims and purposes realized through 
the assembling of concrete materials, but they find fruition 
through an understanding of organisms which reveal the ex- 
periences and purposes of others. The Monroe Doctrine, 
the Missouri Compromise, the Free Wool Schedule, Riley's 
Old Swimmin' Hole, Stevenson's Treasure Island, Holmes's 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 51 

Old Ironsides, Wells's Geometry, Sanford and Brown's 
Grammar, and Bagley's Educative Process are all organ- 
isms which have been created to realize certain aims 
of the persons who created them. On the other hand, 
they serve to stimulate and develop those who will delve 
into them. 



School Concerned with Twofold Aspect of Structure 

The school must concern itself with a twofold aspect of 
structure. In so far as pupils are encouraged and directed 
to develop and reveal original purpose they will need to be 
familiar with the processes of collecting and assembling 
materials to this end. This is the creative side of school 
direction and by no means the least valuable, though usu- 
ally it is the least satisfactory of school accomplishments. 

Develop Creative Ability. — Practically all subjects lend 
themselves to the development of creative ability. Success 
or failure depends upon the insight and power of the teacher 
to stimulate the latent creative tendencies of her pupils and 
to furnish them -with appropriate skills and materials with 
which to make creation possible. Original design in the 
manual arts ; letter writing, short stories, descriptions, and 
dramatizations of various forms in English ; original data, 
comparative maps, graphs and plots in the social sciences ; 
and concrete problems of a personal nature in mathematics 
— ■ all afford opportunity for originality in both the creation 
and expression of ideas. 

Training in creative thinking includes the development of 
an awareness by the pupil of the interrelation of purpose 
and structure. He must be impressed with the fact that 
ideas are revealed only through structure, and that the 



52 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

success of an attempted revelation depends upon both the 
quality of the idea to be revealed and the suitability of the 
structure created to reveal it. 

A few illustrations will serve to emphasize this viewpoint. 
Certain persons purposed to employ electric energy in the 
solution of social problems, consequently they constructed 
the electric doorbell, the telephone, and the electric fan. 
Another purposed to relieve mankind of the annoyance of 
sound, consequently he invented the muffler. Longfellow 
wanted to impress the world with his notion of the im- 
pelling force of genius, and he created Excelsior. Jordan 
desired to reveal the notion he had of the impelling force 
of instinct in the salmon, and he constructed the Life of 
the Salmon. Holmes was impelled to reveal the idea of 
national ingratitude in a specific instance, and he con- 
structed the poem Old Ironsides. Hawthorne desired to 
reveal his notion of the influence of an absorbing ideal upon 
an individual, and he wrote the story of The Great Stone 
Face. 

Develop Interpretative Abilities. — It is inconceivable that 
ideas and purposes are consciously revealed by any means 
other than that of structure. They may be revealed by a 
simple organism. Usually, however, they are revealed by 
a series of processes resulting in a complex organism or 
highly organized body. It is the business of the teacher 
to lead the child to a clear understanding of the interrela- 
tion of purpose and structure that he may be able to express 
his own ideas effectively and be qualified to interpret 
adequately the ideas of others. 

Progress depends upon ability both to create and to 
interpret structures. Since mankind seriously began to 
accumulate the organic experiences of the race for its own 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 53 

advancement, interpretation of structures has been taken 
more and more seriously. The child is sent to school to 
learn the basic experiences of the race in order that he may 
profit thereby and thus be enabled to begin where his 
predecessors leave off. 

Interrelation of Structure and Function 

School curricula in the main are composed of highly 
organized and classified racial experiences. One main 
function of the school is to give the pupil the key to these 
racial treasures, that he may draw upon them in time of 
need. This involves a knowledge and control of the so- 
called fundamentals, such as elementary reading, spelling, 
and the simple processes in arithmetic. It also means 
skill in determining purpose through an examination of 
structure. 

Structure Reveals Function. — The first step in this pro- 
cess may be acquired through calling the pupils' attention to 
the fact that ordinarily we examine structures to enable 
us to get our bearings in the organic world. By an examina- 
tion and comparison of the structures of the electric door- 
bell, the telephone, and the electric fan one early learns that 
they are intended to fulfill entirely different functions. The 
bell and gong reveal the inventor's specific purpose in creat- 
ing the electric bell. The mouth and ear pieces with the wire 
connections indicate the purpose that initiated the tele- 
phone, while the paddle-like arms of the electric fan are 
unmistakable signs of the use to which it is to be put. One 
examines a building and infers that the builder intended 
it for a summer cottage. He examines another and is 
forced to the conclusion that the builder intended it for 



54 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

a library. He examines a third structure and is convinced 
it was intended for a school. The conclusion in each 
of these cases results from an examination of the parts of 
the structure in their relation to each other and to the 
whole. The various parts in these structures are an 
external expression of organized purpose. They must have 
existed in idea before becoming objective realities. 

The growth and adoption of conventional forms of com- 
munication have enabled civilized peoples to objectify ideas 
and purposes in a purely symbolic way, through the medium 
of language. This medium, like those of which electric 
instruments and buildings are constructed, is flexible and 
easily adapted to one's needs. Words and sentences ar- 
ranged in one way force one interpretation, while another 
arrangement impels a different conclusion. The dif- 
ference in the structures of a church and of a school is due 
to the character and arrangement of the parts involved. 
Likewise the difference between Excelsior and the Life 
of the Salmon is due to the character and arrangement of 
their parts. 

If the above conclusion is sound, it is evident that the 
only way one has of laying hold of the ideas and purposes of 
others is by examining the character and relation of the parts 
of the structures created by them to reveal their purposes. 
In the last consideration it means a painstaking analysis 
and synthesis of the structures created by them. 

It must not be inferred that it is the sole business of man 
to search continually for the purposes of his fellows. Were 
one, on being ushered into his room at the hotel late at night, 
inclined to determine all the purposes of the designer of 
his room before retiring, the chances are he would have little 
time to "lie down to pleasant dreams." Likewise should 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 55 

one constantly be examining the structure of Mark Twain's 
Innocents Abroad or Irving's Legend of Sleepy Hollow, he 
might neglect to enjoy the ludicrous situations depicted by 
these two splendid Americans. 

While it is not intended that one should spend all of his 
school time interpreting human purpose, it is true, none 
the less, that one large aim of the school should be to develop 
interpretative abilities. This means a mastery of both 
principles and technique. The structures of plants and ani- 
mals are examined that we may know the function of each 
part in the maintenance of the structure and thereby be 
enabled to determine the use of the parts of other organisms. 

The social sciences are examined that we may get the 
author's interpretation of the governments and economic 
practices of progressive peoples. The masterpieces of the 
world's greatest writers are examined that we may learn 
of the great messages passed on to us and may acquire the 
ability to understand and appreciate similar structures 
created for us. 

Purpose Determines Structure. — Since purpose is revealed 
through structure it is quite evident that the structure will 
be no more complete than the purpose which gives it 
birth. Variation in degrees of clearness and defmiteness of 
purpose finds its counterpart in variation in the quality 
.of materials chosen and the character of the arrangement 
of parts. One who thinks logically will of necessity organize 
logically and vice versa. One not only should be, but actu- 
ally is, judged by the structures he creates or accepts, whether 
they be the clothes he wears, the buildings he constructs, 
or the books he writes or reads. Of course the justness of 
this judgment depends upon the organizing ability of 
the critic. 



56 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Of necessity the school will need to deal with structures 
whose parts vary greatly in the character and quality of 
their arrangement. To the extent that this arrangement 
can be fully appreciated by the teacher is it possible for 
him to expose its purpose to the child. 

.Organization and Logical Thinking. — A definite purpose 
supported by a consistent arrangement of thought elements 
well suited to reveal that purpose is logical thinking. A 
structure which is beautifully adapted to reveal logical 
thinking is a logical structure. As Charters has pointed 
out, a logical organization consists in the arrangement of 
the essential parts of an organism in the order of their degree 
of relevancy to the organizing purpose. 1 It is inconceivable 
that one should teach efficiently without possessing the 
ability to arrange the specific experiences needed into a 
logical whole and to make them explicit first, to himself, and 
second, to those whom he teaches. 

Means of Determining a Unifying Idea. — Since organiza- 
tion implies a central idea, it is important from the stand- 
point of conservation of energy that this " unifying idea" 
be " sensed" or anticipated as easily as. possible. It is 
usually, though not always, implied in the " topic," the 
" heading," or the "subject." If it cannot be discerned 
through these sources, a casual but somewhat analytical 
examination of the entire structure may be necessary to 
discover it. Not until such a "unifying idea " is determined 
is it possible to evaluate the parts or determine the "order of 
their degree of relevancy to the unifying idea." If the parts 
cannot be unified under the tentative topic selected, one 
of two things is probable; either the tentative "unifying 

1 Methods of Teaching, Charters. 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 57 

idea" is not the one intended by the writer or the organism 
is illogically and poorly arranged. 

Ability to arrange the parts of a selection so they will 
readily reveal its central idea or to evaluate an ar- 
rangement of parts through an examination of the order 
of that arrangement, is a rare quality among the beginners 
in the teaching profession. Teachers of special and general 
methods in training schools for teachers should not estimate 
too lightly the merit of this sort of training. 

Teachers' Organizations. — In order to reveal the vari- 
ability in the capacity of teachers in service to organize 
and to use organizations, the following comparative or- 
ganizations are given: The " Story of the Quail" 1 was 
given to a mixed group of elementary teachers of a good 
city system in the Middle West. The papers handed in 
revealed a wide variation in the ability of these teachers to 
organize. Only a very small per cent of those who made 
the trial were able to approximate the excellent results 
obtained by the strongest of their number. On the other 
hand, the outlines of the great majority approximated the 
rather inferior one selected at random from those handed 
in. Two type organizations selected from these papers are 
given below in the ascending order of their value. 

No. 1 
A Story of the Quail l 

1. Mr. Bob sits on the fence and gives forth hearty calls. 

2. Sharp-eyes is in the grass picking seeds. 

3. Mr. Bob's experience with a hawk. 

4. How Mr. Bob and Sharp-eyes find each other. 

5. The quails' nest. 



Our Common Friends and Foes, Turner. American Book Co. 



58 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

6. The young quails. 

7. The enemies of the quail. 

8. Man the greatest enemy. 

9. Struggle of the quails against the brutal acts of man. 
10. The number of quails left. 

n. How they spent the winter. 

12. In the spring they built their. nest near the place where they were 
reared. 

No. 2 
A Story of the Quail 

I. Its haunts. 

1. In summer. 

A. In the meadow. 

B. In the fields. 

C. By the brook. 

2. In winter. 

A . Among briers and weeds. 

B. In the woods. 
II. Its calls. 

1. Those of the male. 

A. Bobwhite. 

B. Who-kee. 

2. Those of the female. 

Ka-loi-kee. 

III. Its food. 

1. Animal. 

Cutworms, grasshoppers, caterpillars, chinch bugs, potato 
bugs, beetles, etc. 

2. Vegetable. 

Seeds of weeds. 

IV. Its offspring. 

1. Where reared. 

A. Nest. 

B. Eggs (period of incubation). 

2. Number. 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 59 

3. Habits. 

4. Dangers encountered. 
V. Its enemies. 

1. Birds of prey. 

Hawks and owls. 

2. Domestic animals. 

Cats, dogs. 

3. Man. 

VI. Its value to man. 

1. Reduces number ot 

A. Harmful insects. 

B. Harmful seeds. 

2. Gives enjoyment. 

A. Cheery notes. 

B. Beautiful form. 

An examination of these organizations reveals two very 
distinct notions of the intrinsic function of the story. In 
order to get at the underlying cause of such a wide variation 
in organization each of these teachers was asked to state as 
definitely as he could the teacher's aim in presenting the 
story. The following statements are typical of those 
handed in. 

1. To stimulate the children's interests so each child will observe 

nature. 

2. To interest children in nature work through the Story of the 

Quail. 

3. To assist pupils to become better readers. 

4. To teach children the life of quails. 

5. To get the thought of the printed page. 

6. To acquaint the children with the events in the life of the 

quail. 

7. To teach the life of the quail, its haunts, calls, offspring, food, 

enemies, and its value to man. 

8. To give the child a clear insight into the facts of nature which 

enter into the life of the quail. 



60 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

9. Specific. 

To lead the children to a definite understanding and appreciation 
of the haunts, habits, food supply, offspring, and enemies of Mr. Bob 
and his mate. 
General. 

To lead the children to a better control of the printed page, and to 
a better understanding and appreciation of the habits, life history, 
and economic significance of quails. 

A critical examination of these aims shows a wide varia- 
tion in the notions which these teachers had of the function 
and structure of this particular subject-matter. 

Indirect and Specific Functions of Subject-Matter. — The 
purpose which the majority of these teachers intended to 
realize through the use of this story might well have been 
realized through the use of other stories. It was not de- 
pendent upon and peculiar to the specific organization of 
this story, consequently the function which they attempted 
to utilize is known as the indirect junction. This function 
is nicely emphasized in numbers 3 and 5. It is so general 
that it readily applies to any selection capable of being 
understood by the children. No. 1 could be applied to 
any treatise upon nature, while Nos. 2, 4, 6, and 8 might be 
applied to almost any story or discussion on the life and 
characteristics of quails. 

Such an indirect use of material indicates a number of 
teaching ailments. It may reveal inability to organize, 
indifference, laziness, or other defects of which the profession 
is aware. This vague notion of the specific intrinsic func- 
tion of subject-matter is not complimentary to the teacher 
and seldom should be tolerated. 

It is evident that No. 7 can apply only to those selections 
which include all of the factors in the Story of the Quail. 
The teacher who gave this aim had definitely determined 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 6 1 

the specific purpose of the story and evidently intended to 
expose this idea to the child. No. 9 goes a step farther. 
It proposes to make this story reveal something to the 
child which no other story can reveal. It recognizes 
the specific intention of the story and appreciates the fact 
that this intention is revealed through specific personalities. 
Such an appreciation gives a warmth and an individuality 
to the story that cannot be secured through No. 7. No. 
9 also recognizes that, while ultimately children should get 
a better control of the printed page and a better under- 
standing and appreciation of the "habits," "life history," 
and "economic significance of quails," this can be secured 
only by getting the "control," "understanding," and "ap- 
preciation" of each individual selection which has a spe- 
cific intrinsic junction to perform. In other words, the best 
way to realize generalizations is through the mastery of 
specific structures. The indirect values of subject-matter will 
come as a by-product while the pupil is mastering the specific 
values. Any other order of procedure is poor economy, and 
poor pedagogy. 

If the specific function of each selection studied in school 
is to be revealed to children, it is absolutely essential that 
the teacher not only be able to determine this function 
through a careful organization of the parts of the selection, 
but that he lead his children to an understanding of the 
logical arrangement that they too may understand and 
appreciate the specific purpose of the selection. 

Much of the vagueness of classroom teaching results 
from the monotonous grinding of details. Like posts in 
the fence, each fact in turn seems to occupy a single and 
isolated place in a series of details. Organization upheaves 
the monotonous plain of thought and converts it into moun- 



62 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

tain' peaks and valleys. It takes cognizance of the relativity 
of the parts of subject-matter by breaking up a unit mass 
into its coordinate and subordinate parts, and thereby 
displays these in graphic representation to the mind. 

Organization and Retention. — A unit of subject-matter 
should offer no difficulty of retention to the teacher 
while the recitation is in progress. Indeed, a strong argu- 
ment for organization is that it reduces facts to order 
and thus materially reduces the number of units to be re- 
tained. The teacher who has not reduced her subject- 
matter to organic terms will be unable to proceed logically 
or forcibly. More embarrassment ensues from a confusion 
of the relevancy of parts than from any other source. Any 
subject-matter that is worthy of presentation should be 
presented in the most convincing way, no matter whether 
it be in the primary and intermediate grades or in the high 
school and university. Much of the twaddling in primary 
teaching is due to the fact that sentiment rather than insight 
determines the presentation of the materials to be taught. 

Some Typical Organizations. — The following organiza- 
tions are compared for the purpose of forcing the generaliza- 
tion of this very simple and fundamental truth. 

First Organization 
Unit of Instruction — William Tell 

i. Tyrant Gessler orders people to bow down before his cap. 

2. William Tell refuses to do so. 

3. Gessler orders him to shoot the apple on his son's head. 

4. Tell begs to be excused but is told that he will be shot if he refuses. 

5. Tell shoots the apple from his son's head. 

6. Gessler displeased, people glad. 

7. Tell was prepared to kill Gessler if he missed the apple. 

8. Later he did kill Gessler. 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 63 

Second Organization 
Unit of Instruction — William Tell 

I. His country. 

1. Its present government. 

2. Its government in Tell's day. 
A. Its ruler. 

a. Gessler. 
II. His difficulty with Gessler. 

1. Cause. 

2. The danger incurred. 

III. Terms of his freedom. 

1. Must shoot apple on his son's head. 

2. The effect of this requirement upon Tell. 
3.. The effect upon Tell's son. 

IV. His acceptance of Gessler's terms. 

1. Cause. 

2. His frame of mind. 

3. His boy's spirit. 
V. His success. 

1. Its effect upon Tell and his son. 

2. Its effect upon Gessler. 

3. The final outcome of it. 

The first organization is one which was taken from a 
student teacher's plan book. It consists of a series of 
topics in the order of their presentation in the story. It 
suggests the forward movement of the story but does not 
provoke reflection or reveal motives. The second organi- 
zation keeps the hero constantly in the foreground. The 
five large coordinate points refer directly back to the main 
topic. The subpoints of each main topic indirectly revert 
back to the same main topic and establish a logical coherence 
of all the parts. This arrangement of parts to reveal the 
degree of relevancy of each part to the whole is a logical 
organization. 



64 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

A Lesson in Seventh-Grade Geography 
First Organization 

Unit of Instruction. 

Boundary, position, and size of Australia. 
Organization of subject-matter. 

I. Bodies of water surrounding Australia. 
i. Name all of the oceans. 

2. State their directions from Australia. 

3. Name all oceans serving as boundaries to Australia. 
II. Position. 

1. Name directions from America and from your home. 

2. Name directions from other continents of the world. 

3. Distance from America (will have children add the miles 

as indicated on the ship routes). 

4. Latitude and longitude. 

A. Comparison with the latitude of your home. 

B. Name tropic and the number of degrees from the equa- 

tor, that passes through Australia. 
III. Size. 

1. Name continents in order of size. 

2 . Compare Australia with the United States and with Europe. 

Second Organization 

Location, Area, and Population of Australia. 
I. Location of Australia. 

1. Relative to other continents. 

A . North America. 

a. Its direction from Australia. 

b. Its distance from Australia. 

B. Europe, Asia, and Africa. 

a. Direction of each from Australia. 

b. Distance of each from Australia. 

2. Relative to latitude and longitude. 
A. Latitude. 

a. In degrees. 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 65 

B. Longitude. 
a. In degrees. 
3. Relative to bounding waters. 

A. On the north. 

a. Timor Sea, Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpenteria, 
Torres St. 

B. On the east. 

a. Coral Sea, Pacific Ocean. 

C. On the south. 

a. Great Australian Bight. 

D. On the west. 

a. Indian Ocean. 
H. Area. 

1. In surface miles. 

2. In comparison with other countries. 
III. Population. 

1. Total. 

2. Relative. 

3. Density of. 

A Lesson in Eighth-Grade Reading 

First Organization 

Unit of Instruction. 

The poem, " Paul Revere's Ride." 
Organization of subject-matter. 
I. The story told by the poem. 
II. Reading of poem. 

1. General expression — joyous. 

2. Articulation and pronunciation. 

A. Clear. 

B. Rapid. 

3. Unfamiliar words. 

A. Pronunciation. 

B. Meaning from content. 



66 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Second Organization 
Unit of Instruction. 

The poem, " Paul Revere's Ride." 
Organization of subject-matter. 
I. The Introduction, 
i. Name of the rider. 
2. The time of the ride. 
II. Events leading up to the ride. 

i. The march of the British anticipated. 

2. Plans for notifying the country folk. 

A. Signals. 

B. Position of advantage by Revere. 

a. His trip across the bay to the Charlestown shore, 
(i) British man-of-war. 

3. Indications of the march. 

A . Men at barrack door. 

B. Marching of grenadiers. 

III. Events immediately preceding the ride. 

1. The friend climbed the tower. 

A . View of the belfry chamber. 

B. The churchyard. 

C. Boats on the bay. 

2. Revere in readiness on the opposite shore. 

A. Booted and spurred. 

B. Alert for the signals. 

C. The first lamp — the second. 

IV. The ride. 

1. Its importance. 

A . The fate of a nation was riding. 

2. Direction and character of the road. 

3. Arrival at Medford town. 
A. Occurrences there. 

4. Arrival at Lexington. 

5. Arrival at Concord. 
V. The results of the ride. 

1. "The British regulars fired and fled." 

2. Revere's spirit of defiance became a precedent for American 

liberty. 



ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MAT rER 67 

The stress put upon the specific intrinsic function of 
subject-matter must not be interpreted to mean that power 
to organize is the only essential qualification needed by 
the teacher. It is essential but not sufficient. Teaching 
involves a definite knowledge of the subject-matter which 
the teacher proposes to reveal to the child, and furthermore, 
it involves skill in stimulating the child to lay hold of the 
thing the teacher wishes to reveal. A logical organization 
is required to meet the first of these prerequisites. It may 
or may not be sufficient to meet the second one. 

Psychological Approach. — To mature and experienced 
persons, the presentation of subject-matter in a logical way 
ordinarily will stimulate interest. Less mature persons may 
be little interested in the logical order of subject-matter. 
They may be engrossed in interests wholly remote from 
the formal subject-matter of the schoolroom. In such an 
event the teacher will need to approach the new material 
through some of the children's active interests. In the 
presentation of William Tell, the teacher might find the 
children more interested in topic II than in topic I and in 
the preliminary discussion might find it advantageous to 
begin with this topic. In " Paul Revere 's Ride " he might 
find topic II more fascinating than topic I, and in that event 
he might be justified in approaching the poem through that 
order of the topics. Such an arrangement of parts is known 
as a psychological organization of subject-matter. It is an 
arrangement of the parts of a structure in the order of their 
degree of appeal to the experiences and interests of the 
child. 

Interrelation of Logical and Psychological Organization. — 
It may be argued, since in the last analysis the child's 
experiences are to determine in a measure the order of 



68 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

presenting the topics in a selection, that it is useless to 
organize subject-matter logically. There would be no 
need of a logical organization of subject-matter if the 
purpose of teaching were merely to interest children. For- 
tunately there is a greater responsibility than this. Chil- 
dren should leave the school with some very definite ability 
to interpret the thoughts and feelings of others. But inter- 
pretative ability means capacity to analyze structures which 
convey thought. It means power to organize logically. 

The purpose of the creator will not be understood until 
his creation is understood. If the logical organization has 
been mastered by the teacher he will at the proper moment 
find it easy to reveal to his pupils the relative importance of 
the parts to the unifying idea. Such an organization will 
provide a proper emphasis of the topics, insure an adequate 
summary, and ultimately will expose the idea embodied in 
the structure. 

Chronological Organization. — A chronological organiza- 
tion of subject-matter is often mistaken for a logical organi- 
zation. The ease with which this organization is determined 
in many subjects accounts for its general use. It is easy 
to follow either the time order or the book order of events in 
literature, history, and many other subjects. There is 
but a very slight causal relation in such an order, conse- 
quently the "specific intrinsic" function of a structure is 
quite likely not to be exposed by such an analysis. Teachers 
of force and vigor will break through the shell of this time- 
honored treatment of subject-matter and lay bare the vital 
relations of the parts involved and set them forth in a 
logical arrangement before attempting to teach such 
subject-matter. 



CHAPTER V 
THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 

" Progress, Man's distinctive mark alone, 
Not God's and not the beasts' : God is, they are ; 
Man partly is, and wholly hopes to be." 

That man has made "progress," evolved from lower 
forms of animal life, cannot be denied; that progress 
is "man's distinctive mark alone" is only partially true. 
Other animals have encountered the same rigorous cli- 
mate, endured like variations in food and shelter, struggled 
with relentless diseases and fought encroaching enemies 
from without and within their natural groups, and con- 
sequently have experienced physical improvement and 
developed greater cunning. Nevertheless, they have been 
unable to determine their own progress or consciously 
modify their own social relations. In the whole animal 
kingdom, man alone has consciously learned to under- 
stand and to control his environment, and finally to trans- 
form it to meet his needs. 

Human Nature Accounted for. — Before the Origin of 
Species by Darwin, the special creation theory of Biblical 
literature was assumed to be true. To "form man of the 
dust of the ground and breathe into his nostrils the breath 
of life" in a single act, removed from man the responsibility 
of accounting for his own superiority. It was not strange, 
therefore, that the theory of evolution, now so universally 

69 



70 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

accepted by biologists, served as a powerful stimulus to 
those interested in the causal factors of structural and 
functional changes. Out of this unified effort on the part 
of scientists, there have developed two distinct theories 
relative to the origin of species. 

Two Distinct Theories of Evolution 

One of these theories justifies differences in organic 
life on the assumption that organisms adjust themselves 
to a changing environment and then transmit the character- 
istics thus acquired. The other theory accounts for these 
differences on the principle of congenital variation. By 
this principle changed environmental conditions are given 
as cause of parental variation. Out of the multitude of 
offspring, those best adapted to the environment survive. 
It is argued that those thus fitted by chance to survive, 
under the changed conditions, and in accord with the law 
of variation, will give birth to offspring, many of whom will 
have characteristics better adapted to the environment 
than are those of their parents. Those thus favored by 
chance when the life struggle becomes intense will survive 
while their less favored relatives will be forced to succumb 
in the unequal competition. Thus by slight variations 
in succeeding generations, species are selected that are 
quite different in structural and functional characteristics 
from their remote ancestors. 

Transmission of Acquired Characteristics. — The ''trans- 
mission of acquired characteristics," the foundation rock 
upon which the first of these theories rests, though in ill 
repute to-day, has been held valid by some of the greatest 
scientists of the last century. Darwin's theory of pan- 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 71 

genesis, which was an attempt to explain the theory of 
acquired characteristics, accounted for differences on the 
assumption that the organic adjustment of an individual 
to a changing environment is registered in gemmules cast 
off by the various cells of the organism. He held that these 
gemmules are finally caught up by the reproductive cells 
and thus become a determining factor in the new organism. 
La Marck and Spencer held firmly to this view also, while 
Galton, though accepting it at first, afterward discredited 
it. The number of others who have held this view is legion, 
although rapidly decreasing. 

It were fortunate for a moral and industrious people if 
such a theory were true. It would insure permanency to 
every moral victory, every worthy thought, and every 
intense emotion. It would make " Excelsior " a biological 
as well as a social heirloom. /Habits, both mental and 
physical, developed through efficient teaching, would be- 
come accumulative through transmission, thus making it 
'possible for the race, by its own organized effort, and 
through the instrumentality of the school, to leave "each 
low- vaulted past," in a structural sense, for one " nobler 
than the last."/ On the other hand, such a law would tend 
to accentuate individual vices engendered by abnormal 
conditions in an environment, and thus give reality to the 
theory that the acquired sins of the father are visited upon 
the children even to the third and fourth generation. 

Congenital Variation and Selection. — The second theory, 
which accounts for organic change on the basis of congenital 
variation alone, was first advocated by Weismann. 1 He 
conceived the notion that the cells of a developing embryo 
very early in its development migrate to that part of the 
1 The Germ Plasm, A. Weismann. New York, 1893. Scribner's. 



72 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

organism in which they subsequently function. The re- 
productive cells so far as functional influences are concerned 
are thereby soon independent of other cells. This inde- 
pendence of the reproductive cells in location and function 
precludes the theory of pangenesis or other theories of the 
transfer of post-natal changes. It limits the possible 
capacity of an individual to the native rather than to the 
acquired characteristics of his ancestry. 

Since hereditary variation is the only means of biological 
progress and since natural selection is barred by civilized 
practices, it is evident that a deliberate selection of ancestors 
whose dominant characteristics are needed is the only 
effective way of securing rapid and permanent advance in 
physical potentiality. Modern methods of breeding which 
have developed the splendid horses, cattle, hogs, fowls, and 
plants of recent years are based upon the principle that 
qualities may be accentuated by selecting ancestors in 
whom the qualities desired have become pronounced through 
hereditary variation. 

Gal ton maintained that " there is nothing either in the 
history of domestic animals or in that of evolution to make 
us doubt that a race of sane men may be formed, who shall 
be as much superior mentally and morally to the modern 
European, as the modern European is to the lowest of the 
Negro races," by the process of selection. He says : 
" Individual departures from this high average level in an 
upward direction would afford an adequate supply of a 
degree of ability that is exceedingly rare now, and is much 
wanted." l 

Though recent success in the improvement of domestic 
animals and plants substantiates this view, the religious 

1 Hereditary Genius, Galton. Prefatory Chapter, 1892 Edition. 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 73 

and ethical status of our time makes the application of such 
methods to the human family repulsive and therefore un- 
attainable. 

Advancement through Accumulated Experiences. — By 
barring the deliberate selection of ancestors, this law of 
heredity, so generally accepted to-day, seems to strike at 
the very heart of human progress. It brings us face to face 
with the question : (How can the race increase its mental, 
moral, and vocational capacity if each generation begins 
on as low level as its predecessor? If the transmission of 
superior nerve fiber through selection were the only means 
of improving the race, there could be little hope for a moral 
and religious people to advance. Fortunately there are 
other agencies whereby the race can get relief . 

That effort is not accumulative is only true biologically, 
certainly in no other sense. Viewed from a biological stand- 
point the present generation has inherited none of the 
power and skill acquired by the preceding generation. In 
this particular the race has gained nothing by its long ex- 
perience. Barring this, it is the "heir of all the ages." 
Though the present generation has not inherited, in modified 
nerve tissue, the particular literary capacity acquired by 
Shakespeare and Browning, it has inherited " Hamlet" and 
"Macbeth," "Pippa Passes" and "Rabbi Ben Ezra" ; and 
though it has not inherited the skill acquired by Turner 
and Landseer, it has inherited the "Mouth of the Seine" 
and the " Fighting Temeraire," " Shoeing the Bay Mare" and 
the "Monarch of the Glen." Though, probably, we are 
no better off biologically than our fathers were, we are 
certainly heirs of the social accumulations of all times. 
These are the heritage of a civilized people, and the school 
is its agency for transmitting them. 



74 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

The teaching process is the link, that unites the unde- 
veloped child, on the one hand, with his social heritage 
on the other. The permanency and completeness of that 
union depend largely upon the efficiency of the teaching 
process. The phases of this social heritage which should 
be presented to the child in order to make him "socially 
efficient " are given consideration elsewhere. The phases 
of child activity involved in utilizing the social heritage 
and the methods which should be employed in arousing 
these various phases of activity will be considered here. 

The Reactive Attitude of the Child 

The problem which most concerns the educational 
practitioner is not how the child evolved, but what he 
is now in potential consciousness and habit, and what he 
is capable of being in terms of conduct. ^It is evident, at 
the outset, that a definite knowledge of the child's mental 
responsiveness and instinctive tendencies has a twofold 
bearing upon teaching. First, it determines the character 
of the subject-matter that should be presented. Secondly, 
it determines the character of the response that should be 
stimulated. 

In educational circles we boast much nowadays of our 
progress in applied psychology, of our knowledge of scientific 
principles, of the science of teaching. Those who talk 
loudest of our educational sanctification often seem most 
oblivious of the fact that many who teach are little con- 
scious of the effect that present knowledge, habits, ideals, 
and prejudices will have upon future needs, interests, and 
responsibilities. Many of our professionally trained 
teachers are giving more weight to the amount of subject- 
matter covered in a prescribed period than they are to the 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 75 

interests engendered and the mental attitude established 
by such subject-matter; to the number of days that the 
child attends school than to the number of minutes he is 
actually striving to solve some problem for which he has 
a felt need ; to glibness of response than to serious purpose 
and effort. 

The blaseness of many students of secondary and college 
standing is due to the fact that no great interests were 
inculcated and no fundamental habits formed in them in 
the elementary school. The miserable marking of time, 
handing in papers that are seldom examined, dismissing 
problems that are of vital concern to the child, pottering 
with needless details when bright and willing children are 
hungering for problems that smack with worth-whileness, 
are responsible for the chronic indifference manifested in 
many of our schools. Indeed, blaseness is nurtured in 
the elementary school wherever teachers are more con- 
cerned with form than results; with the manipulation of 
subject-matter than with the child's life interests. 

To teach effectively one must make a direct appeal 
through reason to the pupil's aims and purposes, through 
native satisfaction to his reflexes and instincts. The 
latter appeal usually will engender a sufficient emotional 
momentum to insure persistent effort ; the former appeal 
will conserve energy and establish a self-respect essential 
to individual freedom. Judging from common school- 
room practices, no clear distinction is made between reason- 
ing or purposive thinking and spontaneous thinking. Were 
they the same, the dry-goods-box philosophers who fre- 
quent the village grocery would have long since been noto- 
rious for their contributions to the sum total of human 
thought. 



76 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Two Types of Thinking 

In order to evaluate teaching in subjective terms it is 
necessary at the outset to distinguish sharply between 
spontaneous thinking and purposive thinking or reasoning, 
and to point out the relative difficulty of stimulating each ; 
not that one is more valuable than the other (both are 
indispensable) but because the quality of teaching required 
in the one case is more difficult and more valuable than in 
the other and consequently denotes a finer teaching service. 

Spontaneous Thinking. — Spontaneous thinking, which 
constitutes the major part of one's daily consciousness, is 
the mere flow of " trains of images" in the stream of con- 
sciousness in the occurring order of previous experiences, 
or in a fanciful order. The order of these "trains of 
images" depends upon the psychic law of "successive 
associations." Images may be associated by contiguity, 
similarity, or by cause and effect. The nature of the 
association depends upon the juxtaposition which pre- 
vailed the last time. Related images are likely to reappear, 
dragging their former associates into consciousness with 
them. This law of association is accounted for physio- 
logically on the assumption that cortical centers in the brain, 
having once created successive images, are susceptible to a 
like reaction owing to the fact that the path joining the 
centers is made more permeable by the impulses which 
traverse it. 

Since repetition of the successive functioning of as- 
sociated centers increases the permeability of the pathways 
connecting them, repetition is an important factor in this 
kind of thinking. Moreover, the character of the as- 
sociation formed determines the efficiency of the thinking. 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 77 

The fundamentals in the various branches of knowledge 
are basic to higher thinking and should, therefore, be subject 
to immediate recall when needed. Consequently much 
of the child's early school life should be spent in processes 
of this character. The long drill that is necessary to fix 
tables in arithmetic, word symbols in reading, locative 
geography, and time and place relations in history, is 
evidence of the teacher's sense of responsibility in this 
connection. Since the value of these facts depends upon 
the accuracy of their associations, and since accuracy and 
speed depend upon the efficiency of the method employed, 
it follows that the teacher's method in fixing such associa- 
tions should be based upon a knowledge of the principles 
of habit formation. (These principles are given in another 
chapter.) 

Though such " trains of images" are absolutely essential 
to mental life and though they are the foundation rock 
upon which purposive thinking rests, we must not permit 
ourselves to be deceived by the delusion that such a state 
of consciousness is " purposive thinking" of any serious 
sort. Since such a delusion is manifest in many school- 
room practices which are justified by the theory that they 
stimulate a maximum amount of reasoning power, we shall 
consider the matter more in detail. 

Example of a Common Delusion. — Modern laboratory 
work presents concrete evidence of this very common de- 
lusion. The impression pretty generally prevails that this 
work is rich in purposive thinking. What are the facts? 
The following is a brief of a recitation observed by the 
writer : The teacher purposed to present the subject of 
"air pressure" in problematic form to a class J of secondary 
pupils. When the class was seated the teacher disclosed 



78 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

the problem in mind. After watching a little while for 
some effect of the disclosure, which did not appear, he 
aroused certain ideas in the pupils' general stock of notions 
which were needed in the solution of the problem at 
hand. 

After looking at the hollow glass tube in the teacher's 
hand and some mercury on the table, both of which sug- 
gested a recent experiment which the class had observed, 
a member of the class suggested that the tube be rilled with 
mercury. The teacher smiled while he visualized the 
" wonderful " feat of reasoning that had been accomplished. 
As the mercury in the inverted tube came to rest, the 
teacher, moving a meter stick with his left hand, asked, 
"What next?" The stick easily suggested measure, and 
the single column of mercury suggested what to measure. 
A student stated the association and the teacher smiled 
again. "What next?" An observing pupil saw the 
balances that had been brought in for the purpose. These 
naturally suggested weight and the column of mercury 
suggested weigh mercury. He ventured this information 
and the recitation continued. Through suggestive ques- 
tions and other suggestive stimuli the stream of conscious- 
ness of this class in science was pulled out (or shall I say 
in?) like a long ribbon until the spindle (conclusion) was 
finally exposed, and the class was given credit for causal 
thinking. 

Purposive Thinking. — Before we can evaluate this very 
common practice in school work, it is necessary to consider 
further just what constitutes purposive thinking or reason- 
ing. In the language of Professor Angell, "reasoning . . . 
is . . . thinking carried on in the interest of some plan 
which we wish to execute, some problem which we wish to 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 79 

solve, some difficulty which we wish to surmount." l Since 
the foundation of reasoning is a "wish to execute — to 
solve — to surmount" it is evident that the end to be at- 
tained should have a felt value to the reasoner, else there is 
little impetus for him to search his stock of ideas and stand- 
ards for means of attaining the end set up. Moreover, 
reasoning to be valuable to the pupil should be self-directed. 
The felt need from within and not the objective stimulation 
by the teacher should be the impetus that leads him to 
select from his stock of ideas those that are most appro- 
priate for realizing the end sought. Furthermore, these 
ideas should suggest the habit tool that is to be employed in 
arriving at the end or final conclusion. 

Examination of the solution of the above problem in 
physics reveals the fact that the "end" sought was not one 
that had a genuine "felt need" to the pupils, since it did not 
arise out of their direct experiences. Secondly, the pupils 
were not responsible for the choice of the special ideas that 
were selected from their stock of experiences. These 
"bobbed up" in response to the remarks of the teacher. 
Thirdly, the order of these ideas, the "habit tool," was 
suggested by the teacher. It would not be true to fact, 
nor fair to the teacher, to say that the class in this particular 
was "guilty" of no reasoning. Doubtless the mere sugges- 
tion of an end to be attained stimulated some of the pupils 
to assume a responsibility for its attainment. That the 
remarks of the teacher caused some of the pupils to 
search seriously for ideas that gave the end desired and that 
these ideas sometimes stimulated a search for a method of 
applying them, is quite probable. In the main, however, 

1 Psychology, Angell. " Judgment and the Elements of Reasoning." 



80 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

thinking of this type consists of " trains of images " linked 
together by similarity. Exercises of this character should 
be evaluated in terms of information secured rather than 
in terms of reasoning. 

Factors Involved in Purposive Reasoning. — We should 
keep constantly in mind that the prerequisite of wholesome 
reasoning is of a fourfold character. First, there must be a 
problem ; second, there must be a stock of ideas sufficient 
to meet the demands of the problem ; third, the problem 
must have a felt need for him who is to do the reasoning, 
else he will lapse into a state of indifference ; fourth, certain 
efficient ways of arranging ideas (mental habits) in order 
that the desired end may be adequately secured should be- 
come habitual with the child. The neglect of any one of 
these elements will seriously handicap the reasoner. The 
felt need may be enriched and intensified by an appeal to 
the life interests and to the instincts ; a rich stock of ideas 
is acquired by a constant widening of one's experience 
in the field of knowledge ; and mental habits that are 
essential to effective reasoning are established through 
drill. 

The Problem. — In practical life one doesn't set aside 
certain periods of the day or week for the purpose of exer- 
cising his reasoning powers. In fact, he exercises these 
powers but little except when he is confronted with a prob- 
lem of vital concern to him, either practical or philosophical 
in character. In like manner school children think most 
naturally and most effectively when confronted with prob- 
lems which appeal to them. 

The responsibility of raising problems, progressive in 
character and related closely to their experiences and in- 
terests, is therefore the most serious one which text writers 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 8l 

and teachers have to face. Success in either profession is 
proportioned to the skill and insight employed in setting 
and solving problems. 

The Project a Form of the Problem. — The stress that has 
been given to this form of the problem in some educational 
circles has made almost a fetish of it for the uninitiated. In 
order that one may estimate properly the relative merit 
of this form of the problem he should understand it thor- 
oughly. 

Examples of the Project. — The problem of furnishing a 
"play house" in the first grade is a familiar example of the 
project. A small " model house" is usually supplied and 
the children are required to furnish it appropriately. This 
imposes upon the children the responsibility of papering 
the walls, weaving rugs, making paper furniture, preparing 
curtains and other articles needed to furnish the house 
properly. 

The problem of making a flour map of the school district 
in which the school is located is a suitable project for a 
fourth grade in geography. The solution of this problem 
involves a knowledge of the streams, roads, homes, and 
towns in the township and of their interrelation to each 
other. Moreover, it requires that a scale be used in the 
construction of the map, which represents the unit of 
measure employed in measuring the township. 

The problem of determining the necessary cost of building 
a barn that is being erected in the neighborhood is a suit- 
able project for an eighth-grade class. To accomplish this, 
the cost of excavating for the walls, the cost of the materials 
composing the walls, the amount and cost of the lumber 
and other materials, and the cost of the labor are re- 
quired. 



82 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Through the solution of such problems the well-trained 
teachers will expect their children to acquire certain definite 
knowledge, skills, ideals, and tastes that are needed for 
further successful work in the schoolroom and that are 
needed to meet the problems of after-school days. 

The Project Defined. — The project is a complex problem, 
the solution of which involves the solving of several sub- 
sidiary problems whose solutions are needed in mastering 
the complex problem or project. It is a valuable teaching 
device when the teacher deliberately and purposely employs 
it for the specific purpose of stimulating certain desired 
controls such as specific knowledge, ideals, skills, and 
tastes. 

Value of the Project. — The project is a valuable teach- 
ing device in that it lays stress upon specific values in 
functional sequence and thus arouses a specific motive for 
the subsidiary problems involved. When used effectively it 
develops a subject-matter bent in the pupil and makes him 
aware that subject-matter rightly considered is a means to 
an end and not an end in itself. The fundamental prob- 
lems of practical life are projects and to the extent that 
the school succeeds in making its problems life-like, it will 
adopt the project method of teaching. 

Basic Experience. — Success in the first factor of purposive 
thinking is conditioned by the experience of him who is to 
solve the problems. This second factor has been a source 
of much disagreement as well as much failure among 
teachers. A problem is subjective and not objective. It 
is conditioned by one's sense of values and by the experiences 
which he employs in an endeavor to attain those values. 
A problem to be real to any one must be adapted to these 
two psychic aspects of his nature. 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 83 

This factor in problem-setting limits success in this field 
to those who understand and appreciate the progressive 
unfolding of children's minds and the consequent experiences 
and values which accompany this unfoldment. 

A Felt Need. — A third prerequisite to purposive thinking, 
and one inseparable from experience, as the above dis- 
cussion indicates, is a consciousness of a felt need for the 
value to be attained through the solution of the problem in 
question. Perhaps no other factor of purposive thinking 
has been so instrumental in influencing methods of present- 
ing subject-matter as this one. 

Order of Essential Factors in Causal Thinking. — The 
order of the essential elements in causal thinking is so closely 
related to a "felt need" that some consideration should be 
given «tp_ two common practices of teaching. The so- 
called "natural " order of presenting subject-matter is nicely 
illustrated by the common method of teaching geography. 
Ordinarily in a recitation upon Italy, the class is re- 
quired to give its location relative to that of adjoining 
states, to give its physical and natural boundaries, its 
physical features, its products, its industries, its people, 
and its government, in the order followed here. Each as- 
sociation is largely that of contiguity, involving little 
of the association of cause and effect. 

From Effect to Cause. — A different procedure and one 
more likely to arouse a felt need consists in gathering data 
on the kind and number of products that the local com- 
munity receives from Italy. It is natural to ask in this 
case, why? The answer will lead to the cause — the occu- 
pations of the Italian people. An answer to the question 
as to why they are so occupied will lead to an understanding 
of climatic conditions, raw materials, commercial relations 



84 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

with other countries, intellectual status, form of govern- 
ment, and the relative influence of Italy as a nation. This 
method begins with the effect which, from the very nature 
of thinking, the mind tends to associate with cause. 

In actual life one never goes about searching for cause 
until the effect stares him in the face. One seldom thinks 
of an insect destroyer until insects infest his plants, of laws 
to punish criminals until crimes have been committed, of 
antitoxin until certain diseases become dangerous, of glasses 
until the eyes begin to fail. In practical life one begins 
with a certain experience and then proceeds to account for 
it. He naturally proceeds from effect to cause. Racial 
progress is marked by the number of right solutions of this 
character. The need always arises when an effect presents 
itself. With this felt need comes motive of a genuine charac- 
ter. These needs are individual and are consequently 
fundamental to individual existence. 

If a child is trained to associate effects with their appro- 
priate causes, the presentation of the one will naturally 
arouse an intellectual and an emotional attitude for the 
other. One who has never worn buttons on his coat is 
little concerned if a new garment has no means of fastening 
the sides. On the other hand, a buttonless coat will arouse 
an intense interest in him who has habitually associated 
buttons in their natural relation. Related experiences 
are undoubtedly basic factors of interest and of causal 
thinking as well. The recurrence of one member of a pre- 
vious association is likely to engender an interest in its as- 
sociate member. Moreover, it tends to stimulate anxiety 
in the cause of the disassociation. 

Instinctive Element in Need. — Felt needs also grow out 
of certain racial habits. I refer here to the social instincts. 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 85 

Until recently we have underestimated the value of these 
social instincts in securing m otive fo rjwork. The old 
slogan was "work for the love of the work." It ignored 
the fact that man survived because of certain predominating^ 
tendencies to fight, to strut, to accumulate, to love, and to 
hate. The modified form of these old instincts gives rise 
fomany of the motives that stir men to untiring effort. 
Why do men who are worth millions of dollars strive for 
more wealth ? Certainly not because wealth will add 
directly to their happiness or that of their friends. They 
do it largely from a desire to beat the other fellow, to 
dominate and control, both of which are modifications of 
the fighting and strutting instincts. The spirit of emulation 
is a great stimulant in the business world, on the race track, 
the playground, and on the athletic field. There is no 
legitimate reason why the work of the schoolroom should 
be exempted from such a stimulant. 

Professionally trained teachers have relied too much 
upon the efficacy of the technique of the recitation for ade- 
quate motivation. Carefully organized subject-matter, 
well-directed questions, good assignments, and concrete 
materials are all essential means in the teaching process, 
but they are seldom sufficient. It is not enough to lead 
children to "think through an assignment" to "acquire 
information" and to "reason" though such practices are 
very desirable. Good teaching does this and more. It 
engenders the desire to accomplish something, to achieve, 
to win honorably. It lays the emotional foundation for 
permanent life interests. If "achievement" is the end of 
educational effort the teaching process should establish 
an emotional momentum that will ultimately insure this 
covetecfgoal. The effects of so much present-day method 



86 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

seem to extend little beyond the classroom. This is 
largely due to the fact that more concern is given to im- 
mediate than to mediated interests. 

By no means are all of the children that are subjected to 
modern methods dulled in the spirit of achievement. The 
leaders in the class, those to whom the majority of the class 
look for the final word, are saturated with it. These leaders 
win, not so much because of superior ability to reason, but 
because of the instinctive desire to win and thereby secure 
the approval of their fellows, and their teacher. It was this 
spirit of emulation that gave the unusual zest to the old 
spelling school and debates, and to those games that have 
persisted down through the ages. It is reasonable to pre- 
dict that many of the duller students are capable of ac- 
complishing effective work if only the desire to win can be 
engendered in them. 

Negative Incentives Retard Progress. — Strangely enough, 
observation of many of our schoolroom practices is sufficient 
to convince one that winning is often suppressed by prac- 
tices that are intended to engender it. In order to improve 
the effort of children they are threatened with failure in 
grades, with being kept in after school, with corporal 
punishment, and finally with expulsion. With what re- 
sults ? Instead of increasing interest in the subject-matter, 
such practices cause the child to associate the displeasure 
arising from the punishment with the subject-matter over 
which the trouble arose) Each punishment thus tends to 
establish a stronger dislike for the subject and for the 
teacher who presents it, and consequently increases the 
need of more punishment. 

It is pretty certain that if these retarded interests are to 
be revived, the negative appeals that have been in vogue 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 87 

for so long must be abandoned. The appeal must be 
positive and directly to the child's interests, both native 
and acquired. The subject-matter must be related directly 
to those experiences that have a felt value for him. Once 
something worth while is accomplished it should receive 
social recognition. 

Success a Positive Incentive. — " Nothing succeeds like 
success." Success is absolutely necessary for the establish- 
ment of a permanent interest in any subject. The child 
must be made to feel that he can and does succeed. Ordi- 
narily teachers are anxious to approve by smile, or word, or/ 
grade, the success of those who do exceedingly well, while 
they reward but little the improvement of those who are ■ 
relatively weak. Man is so constituted that he finds pleasure 
in recognized achievement, and displeasure in failure/^The 
untrained child is more susceptible to these influences than is 
the adult. In actual life, man, through the sifting process, 
usually adjusts himself to the field of opportunity in such 
a way as to insure success. 

Fortunately the school can be more flexible than are 
circumstances in real life. Its flexibility permits materials 
and methods to be adjusted to the capabilities and desires 
of the child and thereby insures his success. Success thus 
secured will create in him a feeling of worth and a sense of 
achievement that will drive him on to further effort. It 
must not be inferred that the work is to be made easy — 
far from it. No adult finds interest in winning a "baby" 
game. Neither do children develop life interests in the 
accomplishment of deeds that do not test their mettle. A 
strenuous test of mental fiber is imperative to zest for 
achievement. 

Variation in Instinctive Responses. — Any practical use 



88 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

of the instincts involves an understanding of their dominance 
in the life of the child. Curiously enough the instinctive 
dominance varies with the growth of the child. An in- 
stinct may hold the center of the arena, so to speak, at one 
stage of the child's development and be relatively submerged 
by a stronger instinct at another period. The hoarding or 
assembling instinct so pronounced in the pre-adolescent 
period is submerged,!, indeed almost negatived, by the 
social instincts of the adolescent. Again, the instinctive 
desire for the "myth" in early childhood is submerged 
later by the strong instinctive longing for the heroic story 
at the ages of ten to thirteen, and even later. Usually 
the hero in the adolescent period is one whose heroism is 
actuated by pure motives. 

It is well for the teacher to know of these instinctive 
outcroppings that she may select subject-matter that will 
create a maximum amount of interest. This is no new 
philosophy. " Strike while the iron is hot" is a maxim 
the truth of which is as old as human experience. Such a 
philosophy is a protest against handing courses of study 
down from above. " Lights to Literature " and "Stepping 
Stones," chosen from an adult point of view, are likely to 
incite little interest in children. Chosen on the basis of 
the appeal they make to the child, they will be "lights" and 
"steps" that stimulate a felt need. 

No sharp and fast lines can be laid down relative to the 
time and prominence of the marked interpretative stages 
of the child. Observation of children's activity in their 
unrestrained moments furnishes the best key to their in- 
terests. Suffice it to say that teaching becomes a tine art 
when the teacher is able to draw upon those materials which 
will stimulate in the child a maximum interest in the things 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 89 

that directly equip him to meet best his obligation as a 
member of a highly organized group. 

Habits of Reasoning. — This fourth factor in purposive 
thinking is overlooked by teachers who believe that power 
to reason is an accumulated potentiality that has resulted 
directly from reasoning. Once this habit of reasoning is 
acquired they believe it will function in any capacity. 
They fail to realize that an accumulation of reasoning habits 
is one essential factor in reasoning, and that originality 
in reasoning depends upon the selection of the reasoning 
habit that is to be used to realize the end desired. In 
order that a child may find the cost of six apples which sell 
at five cents each, it is imperative that he have the follow- 
ing reasoning habit. Since six tilings of equal value cost 
six times as much as one of the things, six apples at five cents 
each cost 6X5 cents or 30 cents. With such a mental 
habit he is equipped to find the cost of cows, horses, or 
lands, etc., when the number of units and the price per 
unit are stipulated. Teachers hesitate to fix such relations 
on the ground that the child does not grasp them in their 
entirety, or that they retard originality. 

If the teacher waits to teach the notion of areas, solids, 
letters, and words until they are grasped in their entirety, 
it is probable that the child will be ignorant of the funda- 
mental tools of thinking throughout life. Once the habit 
of rightly relating a part to the whole is fixed, the child is 
equipped with the tool for solving problems of this character. 
The so-called three cases of percentage are built upon three 
habits of relating a part to the whole. The exercises in 
mental arithmetic, in algebra, and in geometry are justified 
mainly because they furnish drill for the fixing of reasoning 
habits that are believed to function in other organized effort. 



go THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

It cannot be denied that many of the school exercises 
are justifiable only in so far as they produce such habits. 
Granting this, it imposes upon the teacher the responsi- 
bility of determining the habit that any particular material 
is fitted to fix and of drawing upon this subject-matter 
until the result is obtained. It is very doubtful if any 
subject should be studied solely for this purpose. 

Individual Difference. — Much of schoolroom practice is 
based upon the assumption that children are essentially 
alike. Seats of a uniform size for all children of a grade, 
a uniform course of study required of all, an absolutely 
minimum requirement for promotion, and like punishment 
for like offenses, are some earmarks of the prevailing 
practice, which reveal the common notion that children 
are alike. 

Expert evidence is not wanting to prove that children 
have many traits in common. Neither is it needed to prove 
that children have marked individual traits. The former 
have been unduly emphasized . in the past. The latter will 
receive more attention in the future. 

Sense Differences. — Even under normal conditions of 
the special senses, there is a variation in sense appreciation. 
The probabilities are that a few children in a large school 
group are keenly eye-minded. When we realize that prob- 
ably 20 to 40 per cent of the children in the grades have 
defective eyes and ears, the problem of proper individual care 
becomes decidedly serious. 

We have known of a color-blind pupil reaching the 
seventh grade, and an extremely near-sighted pupil reaching 
the upper classes of the high school without these defects 
being known by any of their teachers. 

Apparent stupidity, indifference, laziness, and oftentimes 



THE CHILD FACTOR IN METHOD 91 

insolence are frequently due to defective senses. One of 
the first duties of the teacher is to determine the status of 
the eyes and ears of his children. An equally important 
duty is to make adequate provision for the correction of 
these defects. Tonsils, adenoids, and teeth, though not 
affecting the immediate work of the classroom to the ex- 
tent that defective eyes and ears do, undermine the child's 
health, lower his vitality, and ultimately reduce his desire 
and capacity for work. Proper care of the teeth alone 
furnishes a problem sufficiently large to require the vigilance 
of all the altruistic forces of any community. The potential 
health conditions of children in most communities are an 
ignoble monument of monstrous proportions to the igno- 
rance, indecision, and irresponsibility of the group conscious- 
ness in these communities. Teachers must see to it that a 
similar monument is not erected to the memory of the next 
generation. 

Instinctive Differences. — Other deep-seated differences 
in children will not be overlooked by wide-awake teachers. 
Shyness, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, self-confidence, 
and stubbornness prevent a spiritual unity. The negatively 
reactive and positively reactive children are the source of 
many perplexing situations in the schoolroom. 

There is no " cure-all" for these conditions which may be 
secured by a six-weeks attendance at a summer normal 
school. Each condition requires a specific remedy. A 
broad sympathy, an interest in educational psychology, 
and a spirit of research and experimentation are some essen- 
tial factors required in the solution of this problem. The 
negatively reactive child needs a different set of stimuli 
from the positively reactive child, and conversely. The 
latter are frequently the teacher's pets while the former have 



92 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

been a source of no little annoyance to those teachers who 
lack interest in individual differences. 

In the last analysis the key to teaching is the reactive 
attitude of the child. A teacher's consciousness of this factor 
may not always be explicit. It is his duty to make it as 
nearly so as contact, sympathy, and sane experimentation 
with children and a familiarity with the literature on child 
psychology will warrant. 



CHAPTER VI 
TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 

Meaning of Teaching. — Teaching consists in the con- 
scious direction of stimuli to the end that the teacher's 
aim or purpose is realized in terms of desired pupil con- 
trols. Controls thus purposed by the teacher may be ob- 
tained through the direct stimulation of conscious or un- 
conscious imitation, inductive or deductive thinking, one 
or all combined. It matters little whether the results 
be higher ideals, worthy prejudices, better habits, an in- 
creased number of facts, or richer generalizations, the 
conscious direction of the stimuli that results in the change 
is teaching. He who consciously directs such stimuli is 
a teacher. 

Relative Value of Means and Ends. — Means and ends 
as factors in the teaching process are inseparable. Re- 
move the latter, and an incoherent and aimless reaction 
results ; remove the former, and dreaming and senti- 
mentality prevail. Preaching and teaching are distinct 
in that the former lays more stress upon desirable ends of 
attainment, while the latter emphasizes the goal to be se- 
cured and the means by which it is to be secured. From 
the standpoint of method, means is decidedly the more 
important factor. There are many teachers who know 
"what were good to be done," to one who is efficient in 

93 



94 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

choosing and directing the appropriate means in its realiza- 
tion. 

In the last analysis teaching should be judged in terms 
of behavior. Changes in the child's ways of feeling, think- 
ing, and acting are not necessarily the results of educa- 
tional endeavor, since there are many environmental in- 
fluences other than teaching which affect the child. It is 
reasonable to suppose, however, that the quality of one's 
teaching varies directly as the worthiness of the feelings', 
thoughts, and acts of the pupil varies during his school 
life. If this be true it is fundamental, first, that the teacher 
know the status of the child's controls ; secondly, that he 
determine the changes in these controls which his teaching 
should stimulate ; and thirdly, that he direct the natural 
processes by which these controls are acquired. The first 
two of these items are to be given consideration elsewhere. 
The last will be considered here. 

Methods or Learning 

Imitation a Method of Acquiring Control. — One may 
have the opinion that free trade is the best revenue measure 
possible for America. This opinion may have been formed 
from reading such an assertion of some political economist, 
from hearing a political speech, or from listening to the 
declarations of would-be philosophers. ' In each case it is 
an imitated judgment if it is accepted as whole cloth 
on faith. One's notions of the possessions of nations, the 
population of cities, the severity of climates, the relative 
size of oceans and rivers, the worthiness of rulers, the self- 
sacrifice of leaders, are in the main imitated judgments. 

Conventionality — the essential factor of social continuity, 
cooperation, and a sympathetic understanding — is the off- 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 95 

spring of imitation. We go in flocks and herds. We 
change our gowns and our houses, our religion and our 
politics, our manners and our policies, in conformity with 
those we observe. The commonness of this sort of judg- 
ment-forming makes it easy for impostors to impose upon 
the public. It gives the press and platform a tremendous 
influence in molding the affairs of nations. Along with 
the opportunity and influence comes a great responsi- 
bility. It is the business of the public school to engender 
in the lives of those with whom it comes in contact a 
strong tendency to evaluate in terms of experience the 
acts and opinions of others. The misdirected and awful 
conflict recently concluded in Europe is evidence of the 
unpreparedness of the masses to act independently of the 
narrow and biased opinions of leaders who are influenced 
by their own personal desires. 

Progress depends upon one's accepting pretty generally 
the opinions of others. Life is too short for us to discover, 
as individuals, what the race has taken ages to accomplish 
and understand. Knowledge must be passed along to a 
large extent. One assumes an enormous responsibility who 
is charged with its transmission. The school should see to 
it that the information given out within its walls be the most 
authentic and desirable obtainable. 

The process of judgment-forming through imitation has 
a method side as well as a subject-matter side. Facts in 
geography, history, the natural sciences — in all subjects 
to a greater or less extent — must be taught. There is 
little reason involved. The intrinsic value of these facts is 
seldom realized. An essential problem for the school is to 
motivate these fundamental facts. 

It is in the teaching of these facts especially that the 



96 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

teacher needs to draw upon the instinctive tendencies of 
the child. The spirit of emulation and the love of appro- 
bation should be appealed to. This must be done con- 
sistently and with sincerity. Cheap methods and in- 
sincerity should be avoided. Approbation in the hands 
of teachers is often so cheap that even children feel it, 
though they may not be sufficiently mature to discern 
the peculiar quality of its cheapness. No other device 
reveals so conclusively a teacher's lack of devotion to her 
work. 

Reasoning a Method of Control. — Reasoning is the 
conscious process by which one controls a situation, when 
his habits fail to do so. This control may be attained by 
the discovery of principles — inductively ; or it may be 
attained by comparing an individual situation with a 
general principle — deductively. In this connection Dr. 
Dewey says : "This double movement to said from a mean- 
ing may occur, however, in a casual uncritical way, or in 
a cautious and regulated manner. To think means in any 
case to bridge a gap in experience, to bind together facts 
or deeds otherwise isolated. But we may make only a 
hurried jump from one consideration to another, allowing 
our aversion to mental disquietude to override the gaps; 
or we may insist upon noting the road traveled in making 
connections. We may, in short, accept readily any sug- 
gestion that seems plausible; or we may hunt out ad- 
ditional factors, new difficulties, to see whether the sug- 
gested conclusion really ends the matter. The latter 
method involves a definite formulation of the connecting 
links ; the statement of a principle, or in logical phrase, 
the use of a universal. If we thus formulate the whole 
situation, the original data are transformed into premises 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 97 

of reasoning. The final belief is a logical or rational con- 
clusion, not a mere de-facto termination." 1 

If teaching is to determine the character of this " move- 
ment to and from a meaning" so it will occur in a " cautious 
and regulated manner," instead of in "a casual uncritical 
way," it is evident that the teacher must understand the 
factors involved, their order in the process, and an effective 
means of properly stimulating them. A "cautious and 
regulated manner" means a natural manner subjected to 
the restraint of desirable habits. 

Just as analysis is the first step in all thinking so it is 
the first step in an effort to secure " cautious and regulated" 
reasoning. When a "break in control" or a "gap in ex- 
perience" occurs, habit has failed to meet the emergency, 
and the processes known as reasoning arise to "bridge 
the gap." The break is manifested as a "felt difficulty," 
a feeling of an obstacle to surmount without a ready means 
of surmounting it. Just as one tries to determine the 
character and location of a sudden strange sound, so in 
any felt difficulty, his first endeavor is to "get a line" on 
the situation to be overcome. One examines the details 
or data that appear. Through the process of comparison 
possible solutions of the situation are suggested as tentative 
problems. These tentative problems, or hypotheses, are 
each in turn checked up hastily in the light of apparent 
data, and one of the many problems is decided upon as 
being the most feasible. With this tentative problem de- 
cided upon, new data are assembled for its solution. 

An illustration will suffice to distinguish the main line 
of procedure in such a thought process. One is returning 
from town after a heavy rain. After crossing several 

1 How We Think, Dewey. "The Double Movement of Reflection." 



98 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

bridges he comes to a stream where the bridge is washed 
away. There is a "gap in experience." A " feeling of 
difficulty" at once arises. After the width and depth of 
the stream as well as the character of its banks and the 
swiftness of its current have been observed, there follows 
naturally the hypothesis : Can one drive across the stream ? 
Then in detail all the environmental conditions that in- 
fluence such an act are checked up in the light of this tenta- 
tive hypothesis. Observation of the qualities of the team, 
the character of the land, the soft soil in the bed of the 
stream, and^ the steepness of the opposite bank follow in 
response to this hypothesis. In the light of these data 
the first hypothesis is abandoned. A second hypothesis, 
involving turning about and driving in a roundabout 
way up the stream for several miles to a bridge, is ad- 
vanced. The character of the load, the road, the long 
distance, the possibility of the bridge being washed away, 
the late hour of arriving home, all cause an abandonment 
of the second tentative hypothesis. A third hypothesis 
involving the unhitching of the horses, riding one, and lead- 
ing the other across the stream comes in the foreground. 
The driver recalls similar successes in this connection. 
He contemplates the early return to his home and the 
probability that the contents of the wagon will not be in- 
jured before the stream subsides sufficiently for the wagon 
to be taken across it. This hypothesis is checked up 
satisfactorily in terms of experience and desirable values, 
and immediately the act is executed. The driver's early 
arrival at his home verifies the trustworthiness of the third 
hypothesis. 

It is quite evident that throughout the entire solution 
of the major problem inductive and deductive thinking are 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 99 

determining factors. The early examination of the situa- 
tion — comparing the banks, stream, and the turbulency of 
the current with similar data of experience — and the tenta- 
tive suggestion of driving across the stream are all in- 
ductive activities. The further testing out of this hy- 
pothesis in the light of more varied and detailed experience, 
resulting in the rejection of the scheme, is deductive in 
character. The projecting of other hypotheses and their 
rejection or acceptance deal successively with like thought 
processes. 

This illustration may suggest the highly complicated 
and overlapping processes of inductive and deductive think- 
ing. If, however, one should refuse to note the character 
of a closely woven fabric simply because of the complexity 
of the weave, or refuse to test the character of a com- 
pound because of the intricacy of the interrelation of its 
elements, he would be considered amateurish, indeed, in 
the fields of textiles and chemistry. 

The science of chemistry depends upon the power to 
analyze, isolate, examine, and reunite the so-called ele- 
ments into compounds. The science of teaching is based 
upon the belief that mental processes may be analyzed 
and their conditions and remedial means diagnosed and 
prescribed in such a way as to secure definite results. 
With this in mind we shall consider the processes of in- 
duction and deduction separately just as we would consider 
positive and negative electricity separately though we 
well know that their interdependence is indispensable. 

Two Types of Reasoning — I. Induction 

A study of the history of social and industrial evolu- 
tion reveals a pronounced racial tendency towards in- 



IO0 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

duction. Improvement in methods of war and of travel 
upon land and sea, in weapons of defense, in the household 
arts and modes of dress, in methods of agriculture and 
engineering, in the treatment of diseases, and in the ap- 
plication of natural laws reveals the race's continual 
progress from particular experiences to generalizations. 
Each generation rises to higher levels by the generaliza- 
tions which grow out of the comparison of its own ex- 
periences with those of preceding generations, made possible 
by the accumulation of knowledge and the other acquired 
controls. 

Inductive Factors. — Individual growth reveals modes of 
progress. Experiences with insects, vertebrates, climatic 
conditions, and seasonal changes involve contacts, percepts, 
and certain generalizations. In fact everything known of 
racial progress and of individual development leads to the 
opinion that the mastery of mind over matter in its first 
stages has proceeded from contact to percept and from 
percept to concept. Since every child is the product of 
racial evolution, there is an abundance of theory to con- 
vince one that the order of his mental processes in develop- 
ing intellectual control is in harmony with the order of the 
mental processes of the race in its development of intellectual 
control. 

Direct Perception. — Since contact is the initial step 
in control, it is evident that its character will materially 
affect the character of the control. One's presence in an 
environment does not by any means indicate his contact 
with it. Many a farmer's son goes to the university be- 
fore he understands the flowers which grow all about his 
home, and the life history of the house fly and mosquito 
which have pestered him from childhood. Contact means 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING IOI 

much more than mere physical association. It means 
observing things in response to an instinctive appeal or in 
response to life interests. A boy is in contact with those 
parts of his environment which stimulate his instincts or 
arouse related experiences. 

He is in contact with the fly when he is conscious of its 
injury to man, and when, in the light of that consciousness, 
he examines it and determines its life history for the purpose 
of destroying it. 

Adequate contact is only attainable through the solu- 
tion of problems. The old epigram that you can lead a 
horse to the water but you can't make him drink is analogous 
to the one that seeing is not understanding. Nature- 
study method was first based upon the theory that all that 
is necessary to an understanding of nature is an oppor- 
tunity to be present with it. Early nature-study was 
largely sentimental because it lacked the problematic 
character of recent study in that subject. Observation 
lessons, comments upon the characteristics of birds, and 
the more conspicuous fauna and flora seemed to be the 
main method of attack. 

Like other subjects, nature-study has been brought 
"down to earth." Definite problems are set in order to 
force the child to perceive adequately the things of his 
environment. Where does the fly live in its various stages 
of development? What does the robin feed its young? 
What is the chief food of the toad ? Where does the tree 
come from ? — are problems that force the child to observe 
these animals and plants carefully as well as to organize 
his knowledge effectively. The setting of worthy problems 
is the most effective way to secure adequate sense percepts. 

Indirect Perception. — Similar to the sense percept we 



102 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

have an image, or an individual notion, removed from sense 
contact. The toys of one's childhood, Niagara Falls, New- 
York Harbor, or the Soldiers and Sailors Monument, may 
all be individual notions obtained by sense contact long 
since withdrawn. Their recall is conditioned by memory. 
The characters of fiction have all the earmarks of sensed 
individuals, yet they have never been sensed. They are 
constructed from the elements of experience. Territories 
and governments in geography, campaigns in history., 
narrations and descriptions in literature, — in fact most 
of our material, the so-called subject-matter, deals almost 
entirely with images removed from contact. A vital 
problem for the teacher is, How can these images be rounded 
out and made true? Again the problem is effective but not 
sufficient. 

Concrete materials are also essential. They are the 
warp and woof of constructed, images. Maps, charts, 
illustrations, drawings, constructive work, modeling, cut- 
ting, measuring, and dramatization, all serve to stimulate 
definite outlines of these images. Much of our teaching 
results merely in the short-circuiting of oral and written 
words. In the language of Hamlet, it consists in " words, 
words, words." To give content to these words means to 
stimulate imagery. But adequate imagery can only be 
secured through a free use of sense materials. The so- 
called "born teacher" always draws upon these sense ma- 
terials in full measure in rounding out direct images. 

As McMurry has pointed out, 1 individual notions in 
themselves are of little value. To one so limited in his 
mental growth the world would appear as one hetero- 
geneous mass, "a big blooming confusion," a wilderness 

1 The Method of the Recitation, McMurry. The Macmillan Co. 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 103 

of things. The most significant factor in induction is 
therefore the process of changing chaos into cosmos, dis- 
order into order, and of grouping individuals into classes 
— the discovery of the common and essential characteristics 
in the world of objects. 

Comparison. — Since comparison, which is a factor in 
this process, is so frequently employed inadequately by 
inexperienced teachers it deserves a fuller consideration 
than the treatment here allows. Hence a special chapter 
is set aside for its treatment. 

Generalization and Definition. — As the essential elements 
of a compound are disassociated and recombined by the 
process of electrolysis, so the essential characteristics of a 
group of individuals are disassociated and recombined into 
a new whole — a generalization — which, like the Irish- 
man's flea, is difficult of location. When one tries to image 
a generalization the consciousness flits back to one of the 
many individuals with which it has " synthetic connections." 
Its close relation to individuals makes a definition of a 
general notion the most difficult process of the classroom. 

Most persons know baskets from the individuals of all 
other classes of objects, but who is ready to attempt a 
definition of a basket? It would certainly be absurd to 
attempt to define a basket before one becomes familiar 
with all sorts of baskets in use. Each person is content 
with his notion of basket without attempting to define it. 

The moment one crosses the threshold of the school- 
room he is apt to forget his experience with baskets and 
like experiences. To begin to introduce the child to 
generalizations by having him describe a class of things is 
to engage in a peculiar mockery. Occasionally some one 
desires to introduce nouns, punctuation marks, spheres, 



104 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

continents, rectangles, cubes, and many other things in 
this way. All such should think of their experience with 
baskets, and occasionally try to form a definition which 
will include all baskets and exclude the individuals of all 
other classes of objects. 

Formation of Definition 

It must be borne in mind that comparison is as essential 
to the formation of a definition as it is to the formation 
of a generalization. Consequently the formation of defini- 
tions can best be perfected by permitting the pupils to 
compare their own definitions and later, as McMurry 
has pointed out, to compare their own with that of the 
teacher, and still later with the one given in the book. 
Such a comparison should enrich the definitions of the in- 
dividual members of the class, and also develop a self- 
respect which seldom occurs when definitions are com- 
mitted to memory. 

Function of Definition. — Definition has an educational 
advantage in that it forces and intensifies comparison. 
When a child sees that his definition is different from those 
of the others, he immediately begins to compare individuals 
for the purpose of laying hold of the essential character- 
istics of the class. Such an examination deepens percep- 
tion and purines the generalization. 

Application of the Generalization 

Though application is deductive in form it should be 
borne in mind that in the teaching process it has an in- 
ductive purpose or function. That is, we proceed to test 
our generalization not, if you please, for the purpose of 
understanding the individual, but for the express purpose 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 105 

of finding out if we have discovered the right principle. 
One may experiment with a balanced ration for chickens 
for the purpose of increasing the yield of eggs. His first 
experiments lead him to a tentative principle. He tries 
it out on other breeds of chickens and finds that he must 
modify it somewhat. He further experiments with the 
modified ration until the results are relatively stable and 
consequently satisfactory. He has established a principle. 
His trials are to insure the trustworthiness of his generali- 
zation. Such trials are inductive in purpose. 

Later on in the season he leaves for his vacation. On 
his return he notes that the egg yield is decidedly low. 
He at once concludes that the chickens are not being fed a 
balanced ration. This problem is solved by the mere 
application of a principle to an individual case. This 
process is deductive in purpose. 

In all search for principles there is of necessity a need 
of application. This testing out process must be continued 
longer in the school than elsewhere since children's ex- 
periences are more limited than are those of adults. They 
are likely to reach true generalization less easily than 
adults. It must be remembered, however, that application 
in this sense is inductive in purpose though deductive in form. 

Application vs. Drill. — From what has been said al- 
ready it must seem evident that application in the in- 
ductive process is doing a thing, not for the purpose of 
reducing the act to an automatism, but for the purpose 
of better understanding the principle that controls similar 
situations. On the other hand, the so-called drill exercises 
are not intended to give a richer notion of some controlling 
principle, but to insure the same invariable response to a 
recurring stimulus. 



106 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

For example, one may group certain words in the spelling 
list. After a little he notices in the " ei" words which he 
has before him that in all cases where "ei" has the sound of 
long "a" the order of the letters is u ei" as in the word 
freight. With this principle in mind he examines other 
words and ultimately concludes that this principle is uni- 
versally true. This is a case of application: If instead of 
comparing these words for signs of common character- 
istics he repeats each word until the letters are contigu- 
ously associated the process is one of drill. 

Danger of Short-Circuiting in Application. — Nothing is 
more common or more harmful in school than the habit 
of short-circuiting. For example, the child in the reading 
class sees the printed word, and then instead of imaging 
the idea back of the word before pronouncing it, as he does 
in actual contact, he "cuts across" from the stimulus of the 
written word to the mechanical expression of the oral sym- 
bol, completely eliminating the essential element — the 
content. The same fault is common in other subjects. A 
teacher of physical geography was teaching a class how 
the direction of winds is determined by a storm center. He 
showed on the board how the winds blow when the center 
is at Philadelphia, again when it is at Boston. The pupils 
helped to recall the "counter clockwise" effect of winds and 
with the face of a clock in mind they were able to indicate 
the direction on the board. However, when one student 
was asked to represent a storm center and move about 
the room, and the others were asked to point at full arm's 
length the direction of the wind, all but one or two were 
baffled. Much of our so-called application is of this 
short-circuiting character. Excessive verbal mastery of 
lessons, or even the mere mastery of ideas without their 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 107 

being enriched from actual experience, results in bad habits 
of short-circuiting. 

Consistent Application. — Application to be consistent 
must prevent short-circuiting. The individual situation 
tested must be real to the child's experience — not a 
" supposed" situation. Better by far is the problem which 
requires the children to find the actual cost of papering 
the sitting-room in Willie's home which possibly is being 
repaired, than to find the cost of papering a supposed room 
of given dimensions. Problems in fractions involving the 
cost of the milk which is consumed by the various families 
represented in the room, at the actual fractional cost per 
pint or quart are much superior to problems that require 
the cost of 9 lb. of sugar at 7 \ cts. per pound, or 8 bars 
of soap at 4J cts. per bar. Application to be of most worth 
must have the ring of real worth. 

II. Deduction 

It is difficult to explain why methodologists have given 
relatively so much consideration to inductive processes 
and relatively so little thought to deductive processes, 
since most of our values in the after-school days are deter- 
mined by deductive procedure. Nearly every problem 
that confronts one from the moment he arises in the morn- 
ing until he retires in the evening is solved by deductive 
reasoning. On discovering that it is light in the morning 
one concludes that it is time to get up. He either im- 
plicitly or explicitly proceeds as follows : One should 
arise at day-break. It is now day-break. Therefore, it 
is time to arise. And so on through the day, he solves the 
problems that arise by holding them up in the light of some 



108 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

accepted principle which he has adopted as a standard for 
determining individual values. 

Doubtless method in deductive thinking has been neg- 
lected because it has been assumed that if one understands 
principles he will be able to solve the problems to which 
they relate. There is no greater fallacy in the field of 
education than this assumption. The development of 
moot courts, internes, practical courses in the household 
arts, training schools for teachers, experiment stations 
in the field of agriculture, — all illustrate the fallacy of this 
assumption. 

Deductive thinking consists in controlling particular 
cases by the application of general principles to them. In 
this age, when we are so sensitive to the importance of 
conservation in every phase of endeavor, it is proper and 
fitting that the deductive approach be critically examined. 
Such an examination will prevent waste time and energy 
in the process of obtaining values by deductive reasoning. 
It is important that the procedure be natural and rational 
in the interest of economy of both time and energy. In 
order to evaluate deductive processes in terms of economy 
of time and energy, it is necessary to lay bare these processes 
and examine each in terms of the child's interest. Method- 
ologists have made the processes of induction explicit and 
thereby paved the way for economy in the inductive method 
of teaching. There is an equally good reason for making 
the processes of deduction explicit and thereby providing 
a consistent method of teaching deductively. 

Steps in Deductive Thinking 

An inductive way of getting an understanding of the 
deductive process is through an examination of all of the 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 100 

steps in that process. This can be done by exposing the 
distinct phases of the process, and then determining their 
order and relative importance by comparison. The follow- 
ing process in obtaining a value will illustrate this method. 
A door bell which has been in good repair since it was in- 
stalled suddenly ceases to ring. The owner has thereby 
lost the value afforded by the ringing of the door bell. 
Up to this time this value was controlled by unconscious 
habit. As he steps up to the door, for the thousandth 
time, it may be, the hand automatically presses the button. 
Once the finger is in its accustomed place the muscles con- 
tract but the pressure brings no response. A second 
pressure on the button and — no response. 

A Felt Difficulty. — The first conscious response to his 
failure to control this value in the habitual way is a felt 
difficulty. From the standpoint of method it is essential 
that one know the factors involved in producing a "felt 
difficulty." It is evident that the habitual way of getting 
attention from within has failed to get the customary 
response, and that the customary response previously se- 
cured by this habit is of value. As the value diminishes 
in importance a felt difficulty will diminish in like pro- 
portion. For example, one starts to cross the street and 
just at that instant an automobile stops the passage. 
Though the habit ceases to operate for the moment there 
is but little "felt difficulty" because the halt is but 
momentary, and the delay of little consequence. 

Examination of Data. — Curiosity is aroused by the 
occurrence of the felt difficulty, and hence a "tinkering" 
with the bell follows. In all probability this "tinkering" 
will consist in repeated pushes on the button, pounding 
the bell, and tightening the screws and wires. In other 



HO THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

words, this second step consists in examining the data most 
directly and concretely related to the conditions at hand. 
This step is based upon a knowledge of the gross conditions 
involved in the ringing Of a door bell. It is the step which 
has to do with the examination of external conditions. 

Again a general knowledge of the conditions which 
determine this type of control is presupposed. Without 
a general understanding of the conditions there would be 
little " tinkering" after the "felt difficulty" arose. The 
disturbed impulses would find no definite outlet. 

Tentative Hypotheses. — If a general familiarity with 
the conditions which stimulate the search or examination 
exists, the chances are that some degree of knowledge 
relative to the principles which control these conditions is 
possessed. If such knowledge does not exist further pro- 
cedure will stop. If it does exist the third factor in the 
mental process takes form and is known as a tentative 
hypothesis. The number and order of such hypotheses 
will depend upon the number and order of the principles 
which the operator conceives to be involved. The follow- 
ing order of principles may occur and thus give rise to the 
hypotheses concerning the defect in the door bell: ist, 
a certain electric potentiality is necessary to ring the bell ; 
2d, a continuous connection between the two poles of 
the cell and the posts of the bell is indispensable ; 3d, the 
current passing around the soft iron core must be inter- 
mittent; 4th, the spring provided to secure this inter- 
mittency must be intact. 

Testing Hypotheses. — As each hypothesis is investi- 
gated, the fundamental law with which it is associated in 
consciousness is observed in its essential ramifications. 
Particular data are examined to see if the law under con- 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING HI 

sideration is being transgressed. One after another of the 
occurring hypotheses is tested out in the light of an as- 
sociated principle that is recalled. Through the process of 
elimination the difficulty is located finally and the condition 
remedied. This location of the defective condition through 
the application of known principles is testing the hypotheses 
and is the fourth step in deductive thinking. 

Verification. — But no electrician would stop here. 
After making all of the connections, certainly he would 
step to the door once more and press the button to see if the 
result of his handiwork is good. This fifth step in deductive 
thinking is verification. It is the final assurance that the 
value which was lost by the break in the control of the bell 
is restored. 

An examination of this concrete and practical problem 
reveals the fact that there is a perfectly natural order in 
the mastery of this situation ; and furthermore that there 
is a utilization of principles and a constant play of ex- 
perience from the beginning to the end of the process. 

Detailed Analysis. — In view of making each of these 
steps explicit in its bearing upon method, it is necessary 
to isolate it and examine its characteristics more in detail. 
As has been observed already, two essential factors are 
involved in estabh'shing a felt difficulty. One is a failure 
to secure the customary response, and the other is a realiza- 
tion of the value of such a response. The first of these 
factors finds its physiological counterpart in habit. 

So long as habit secures the value, one is not disturbed 
and there is no occasion for deductive thinking. The 
moment that habit fails to secure the value in the cus- 
tomary way, control is broken and the deductive process 
begins. Consequently a fundamental step in method 



112 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

involves making the pupil aware that his present control, 
which heretofore has given satisfaction, now fails to do so. 
For example, a pupil has not been dissatisfied with his writ- 
ing though it has been' quite mediocre. An investigating 
committee finds that it takes twice as long to read a page 
of his manuscript as it does to read a page of manuscript 
written by the best writer in the class. By this comparison 
the poor writer is made to realize for the first time that his 
method of writing works a hardship upon those to whom he 
writes. Henceforth his old habit will cease to give satis- 
faction and consequently will not possess value for him. 
It is evident that motivation begins at this point. 

The problem at hand must be either associated with 
some generic value (instinctive purpose), or it must be 
related to some specific aim or purpose which the child 
entertains for himself. For example, the first essentials 
in motivating the problem, What does the robin feed 
its young? are: ist, a certain familiarity with robins, 
— where they nest, the probable location of food, and a 
general notion as to how this food is secured, conveyed, and 
transferred to the young; 2d, and by far the more funda- 
mental factor in motivation, a consciousness of the rela- 
tion of this information to certain values entertained by 
the child. 

If no specific life interests have been established, such 
as that of gardening, caring for birds, and protecting trees, 
it is up to the teacher to draw upon native values. In 
this case perhaps she should stimulate the social instincts. 
An appeal to the pride of her pupils may bring success. 
By making much of the reports that come in she will soon 
establish values in the consciousness of the children that 
will impel interest in the means of attaining them. Doubt- 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 113 

less these values which are inherently related to the social 
instincts constitute a large part of the propelling force of 
human endeavor. 

The importance of the gathering of data for the solution 
of any problem is manifest in the results obtained. Chil- 
dren, as do adults, stumble more frequently at this point 
than at any other. Half-baked conclusions are "due too 
often to insufficient data. Real estate agents, patent 
medicine men and exploiters of all sorts of get-rich-quick 
schemes are purposely negligent in this particular. All 
of the essential data would ruin their business. In fact 
it is the policy of those who desire to force a wrong con- 
clusion to overemphasize certain data and to withhold 
other data of powerful significance. Persons called before 
the congressional committee which investigates campaign 
funds frequently have been skilled in this particular. 
Politicians usually manifest a similar weakness. 

The social stimulus again will aid much in securing the 
necessary data. Comparison here, as in other phases of 
school work, should be drawn upon in full measure. In- 
dividual reports should be encouraged by keeping full and 
complete accounts of results and by public mention of the 
relative value of such reports. Whether it be gleaning 
facts relative to the robin feeding its young, or rinding the 
conditions of a formal problem in arithmetic, zest for the 
work and accuracy of discrimination will be enhanced by 
a large and discriminate selection of details. 

A large collection of data intended for the solution of 
a problem may prove to be only mental curios. This 
will prove true in case of a limited grasp of principles in- 
volved in the solution of the problem. Tentative hypotheses, 
though essential in the solution of problems, depend in their 



114 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

initial stage upon a consciousness of underlying principles. 
Determining what is wrong with the door bell by de- 
ductive thinking involves an understanding of the nature 
of an electric current, of good and bad conductors, of the 
influence of an electric current upon a soft iron core, and 
of the effect that a magnet has upon a piece of soft iron. 

Progress in this phase of the procedure requires familiarity 
with the principles involved. Hence in the early stages of 
the deductive process, or perchance before the problem is 
attempted, all principles involved should be recalled and 
tentatively applied. Some teachers act upon the fallacious 
theory that a principle once in the memory is always 
in the memory. A teacher was recently requiring a class 
in algebra to square polynomials by inspection. The class 
had previously worked out the rule by induction, but still 
its application was vague to them. Half the hour was 
taken up in " lumbering" and "stumbling" over the 
problem assigned. Ten minutes spent upon recalling the 
"rule" and in applying it over and over in specific cases 
until the notion became workable would have prevented 
the difficulty. 

An abstract knowledge of principles alone will not suffice 
to make one constructive. One who solves a problem 
intelligently must have, in addition to a grasp of principles, 
the ability to visualize a situation where the principle 
applies. Not all mechanical engineers are inventors. Not 
all scholars are writers. Not all students of mechanics 
are architects ; and not all lovers of the beautiful are poets, 
composers of music, or artists. They only become so by 
developing the constructive imagination. 

The school should give training in this aspect of think- 
ing. More opportunity should be offered for applying 



TEACHING BASED UPON WAYS OF LEARNING 115 

principles to new situations. Arithmetic, literature, his- 
tory, geography, and most of the other subjects are rich 
in this sort of opportunity. There are times when the 
teacher should assign work peculiarly suited to develop 
this phase of thinking, and allow time in the recitation 
period for consideration of worthy contributions by the 
class. 

Testing the hypotheses is a significant factor in the 
solution of a problem. In other words, this step consists 
in making actually real what has been only theoretically 
real. In the case of the door bell it involves tightening 
the wires at the posts, adjusting the automatic breaker 
until it works freely, and testing the strength of the current. 
In the squaring of a polynomial it consists in actually per- 
forming the operations suggested by the rule. 

It is important that these processes be as skillful as 
possible. Speed and accuracy at this stage in problem 
solving are indispensable. They are attainable only 
through an enormous amount of drill. This drill should 
be lively and usually at regular periods. It has been 
demonstrated by experimentation that students who have 
been drilled upon the fundamental operations in arithmetic 
make higher grades on examinations involving thought 
processes than do those who have not been so drilled. This 
is due to the fact that those who are skilled in the me- 
chanical processes have mental energy released for the 
thought processes, which otherwise would be utilized. 

It is relatively easy to build houses, span streams, elimi- 
nate trusts, provide prohibition, and irrigate vast areas 
of arid land upon paper. It is more difficult to do these 
things in reality. The acid test of the mastery of a principle 
is in its application. Verification in the truest sense means 



Il6 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

such an application. It involves the application of prin- 
ciples to the bank discount with which the local bank has 
to deal and to the denominate numbers involved in the 
household problems the several children of the class have 
to face. In its practical aspect verification means the 
application of the theories acquired to concrete situations. 
Teachers who are more than imitators, who teach as they 
do because of a consciousness of the value of principles 
involved, will recognize that there is yet an abundant 
opportunity to make verification explicit. The waste 
here is just as marked as in the inductive process. Practical 
results are needed as much here as there. 

It is not enough to demand of pupils that they solve 
problems. It is quite as important that they solve them 
with as little expenditure of energy and time as possible. 
The problem should be set so as to arouse & felt difficulty; 
to stimulate a diligent examination of data; to provide 
feasible tentative hypotheses ; to insure a searching test of the 
hypotheses ; and to impel a comprehensive verification of the 
dominant one. When all of these steps have been con- 
sidered carefully, one may rest assured that the problem is 
solved satisfactorily. _. 



CHAPTER VII 
HABIT FORMATION 

Scope of Habit. — The relative amount of habit in the 
performance of one's work, indeed, in the enjoyment of 
one's leisure, is greater than he is apt to suspect. From 
the moment one awakens in the morning until he falls 
asleep at night, he is constantly exercising this significant 
form of control. The major portion of life's activities — 
arising, dressing, starting the fire, eating, discussing the 
incidents of daily life, walking to and from the car, doing 
the chores on the farm, in fact, the hundred-and-one other 
details of office or shop or farm, are mainly automatisms 
which require little or no reflection or reflective guidance 
on the part of him who performs them. 

With the advancement of civilization comes an increase 
in the complexity of the social structure. The social 
organism becomes highly differentiated and specialized, re- 
quiring delicacy of adjustment on the part of the individuals 
who constitute it. Along broad lines the individual's 
adjustments to the social organism of which he is a part 
may be grouped into two main classes : those which have 
to do with an adequate understanding, appreciation, and 
adaptation of the individual to the social organism of which 
he is a part; and those which have to do with the special 

117 



Il8 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

adaptations he must make in the particular vocation 
he has elected. 

The second class of adjustments does not necessarily 
require a higher degree of skill than does the first. The 
particular acts of the painter, plumber, typist, cabinet- 
maker, weaver, or telegrapher require no more skill than is 
required in the art of verbal expression, in determining 
numerical relations, and in conforming to the various con- 
ventions which in general weld the various parts of the 
social structure together. To assume that more skill is 
required to control a paint brush than to control the 
" mother tongue" adequately; to set type than to prepare 
the selection being set up; to "click off" on a telegraph 
instrument the status of the world's markets than to 
determine the changed condition of those markets, is 
absurd. These two classes of skill are different yet both 
are highly important. It is not true that one is inferior to 
the other. Both are essential. 

It is not our purpose to enter into a discussion of the 
relative importance of these two classes of adjustment. 
It is certain that the first class should not receive less con- 
sideration as society becomes more highly differentiated. 
With the breaking down of the apprentice system, the 
curtailing of the responsibilities of the home, the awaken- 
ing consciousness of the fact that adjustments of the first 
class aid the professions more than they aid the trades, 
there is a growing conviction that the school is not giv- 
ing sufficient consideration to preparation for the trades. 
It is pretty certain, however, that the public school will 
always give first consideration to the establishment of the 
controls which underlie the broader social adjustments. 
It will insist upon a basic general education to safeguard 



HABIT FORMATION 119 

the whole of society before it provides training in vocational 
skill. Doubtless there should be training for both forms of 
preparation at the same time. 

Relation of Habits to Efficiency 

Correct Habits Conserve Energy. — In a discussion on 
a method of teaching one is more concerned in the relation 
of habit to efficiency than he is in the general character- 
istics of habit. The conservation of energy is a vital factor 
in efficiency. In all activities in which habit has not be- 
come specific, energy lacks definite control and positive 
guidance, and consequently is subject to great waste. 
One who is not skilled in threading a needle will utilize 
excessive energy in performing the task. Skating, dancing, 
horseback riding, controlling and directing a new machine, 
playing a new game, in fact performing any new and un- 
familiar activity exhausts the novice, while one skilled in 
the performances of these acts will experience little or no 
fatigue. 

Correct Habits Release Energy. — Not only do adequate 
habits reduce the useless expenditure of energy but they 
release and thereby allow of a redistribution and concen- 
tration of energy at the most strategic points. If one is 
riding a bicycle for the first time it is probable that his 
mental energy is so consumed in controlling the front wheel 
in order to maintain an upright position that he has little 
or no energy left to reflect upon how to dodge the hole in 
the road which he suddenly approaches. One who has 
reduced the upright control of a bicycle to habit will have 
all of his energy free to reflect upon the various possible 
ways of dodging the hole mentioned. 

One dancing or skating for the first time will find him- 



120 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

self possessed with little brilliancy of thought and unable 
to hold his own in the conversation indulged in by his 
skilled companion. Neither will one driving an auto- 
mobile for the first time be entertaining to his companion, 
as many an unfortunate victim of such an experience can 
testify. After specific habits have been formed to control 
these new situations, mental energy will be released and 
coherent conversations may be carried on. 

One who in childhood learned habits of speech which 
transgress all of the laws of the " King's English" finds 
much of his mental energy consumed in the mere form of 
expression, which should be used in rounding out and 
perfecting the thoughts themselves. Only when one has 
reduced his language to an automatism is he able to draw 
upon all of his reserve energy in exposing his convictions 
to others. In like manner one cannot express his ideas 
effectively in written form if he is constantly in doubt as 
to the sort of punctuation he should use, or the spelling 
he should employ. One cannot make great headway in 
mathematical computations if he is constantly harassed 
with inaccuracies in the use of the fundamental processes. 
Inefficiency in all of these lines of endeavor is conditioned 
by the consumption of energy that is drawn off to control 
physical processes which should be reduced to habit. 

Teachers who fail to establish the fundamental habits 
upon which the larger thought processes depend for ex- 
pression are unconsciously but surely responsible for the 
life bondage which they unwittingly impose upon the chil- 
dren, through failure to organize their native impulses into 
definite socially serviceable reactions. 

Correct Habits Make for Uniformity and Consistency. — 
One who has reduced writing to a habit may be depended 



HABIT FORMATION 121 

l 

upon to reproduce consistently the same form with which 
he begins. The truth of this statement is supported by 
the practices of banks and courts in determining the au- 
thenticity of handwriting. One who has reduced spelling 
to an automatism will be consistent and uniform in his 
spelling, though he may not always produce conventional 
results. A dependable person is one who has reduced the 
fundamental virtues to habit. When one is punctual, 
honest, industrious, loyal, and self-sacrificing through 
habit, rather than through sheer will power, his dependa- 
bility is a certainty. 

Habits the School Should Establish. — As has been pointed 
out, the first responsibility of the school is to initiate the 
child into those branches of knowledge which are especially 
qualified to adjust him to his complex social environment. 
Most of the subjects of the elementary curriculum are 
for this purpose. They have persisted because of their 
broad cultural value. These subjects depend upon a rela- 
tively few fundamental factors. It is the business of the 
school to search out and habituate these, that mental energy 
may be released for the thought processes required of each 
pupil. 

The mechanics of reading, pronunciation, articulation, the 
massing of words, and the relative emphasis of phrases and 
clauses in the sentence, and the searching for difficult words 
in advance of oral reading, are essential and fundamental 
processes which should be habituated if the mispronuncia- 
tion of simple words, repetitions, substitutions, and omis- 
sions are to be reduced to a minimum. 

The fundamentals of language should receive like at- 
tention. The person, gender, number, and case of nouns 
and pronouns ; the tense, mode, and number of verbs 



122 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

and the degrees of adjectives are some of the essentials 
that are needed daily, and consequently should be under- 
stood and made automatic. 

The fundamentals in ' arithmetic should receive similar 
treatment. Notation and numeration ; the four funda- 
mental processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, 
and division, with the mechanical devices best suited to 
give them expression ; the tables in denominate numbers ; 
and methods of attacking problems in percentage and 
mensuration are a few of the operations in arithmetic that 
should be drilled and drilled until proper habits are formed. 

It is unfortunate that the fundamentals in other sub- 
jects are not more highly differentiated than they are. 
Investigations are revealing some of these. Others will 
follow. In geography we know that direction, prevailing 
currents of both air and water, elevations, great trade 
routes, great commercial centers, the relation of industries 
to their environment, the relation of climatic conditions 
to the industries and to civilization are such fundamental 
factors that they should be reduced to automatic control. 

The phases of school work which are intended to give 
specific vocational training are rich in processes which 
should be reduced to habit. Stenography and typewriting 
in our commercial courses are examples. The typist who 
is prepared to demand a good position in the business world 
will have reduced all of the movements on the keyboard 
of her machine to habit. Her automatic nerve centers must 
swing her ringers up and down the keyboard with absolute 
certainty while she unravels the thought processes she is 
to express in type. As the school undertakes more and 
more training of a strictly vocational character its re- 
sponsibility in habit formation will increase. 



HABIT FORMATION 1 23 

Much of the poor work that is done in the teaching of 
fundamental habits is due to a few very definite causes : 
inability to appreciate the value of good habits, insufficient 
knowledge of the fundamentals which should be habituated, 
lack of consistency and persistency of purpose in estab- 
lishing these habits, and lastly, unfamiliarity with ef- 
fective methods of establishing habits. From the view- 
point of method the last point is most significant. 

Method in Habit Formation. — It were futile to point 
out the things that should be done and leave unsettled 
the way best fitted to do them. Ninety and nine are wont 
to point to the goal that should be attained to one who 
comes forward with a practical way of attaining it. This 
is as true in method as it is true in religion, ethics, politics, 
and in other forms of endeavor. It is passing strange, 
however, that relatively many point out suitable ends of 
attainment to the relatively few who master the means of 
attaining these ends. 

The ninety and nine referred to in the above paragraph 
have not determined the particular topic at hand. Fortu- 
nately for the practitioner there is an abundance of definite 
method available for his guidance in the teaching of habits. 
And while we do not hope to add to, or make more ex- 
plicit, what has been presented already by others, it is 
hoped that a discussion of the various steps in the process, 
with illustrations drawn from experience, may be helpful 
to those who have had limited training in this field. 

First Step in Teaching Habits. — Since habit formation 
involves a succession of definite acts, it is important that 
he who performs a series of acts understand the thing to be 
done sufficiently well that the successive acts be con- 
sistent. Inconsistency in habit formation, as in ethics, 



124 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

through neutralizing the effect tends to maintain the zero 
point. Therefore, in this process a clear understanding 
and frequently a clear demonstration of the habit to be 
attained is the first prerequisite. As Rowe points out, the 
first step in applying the recipe for " rabbit stew" is to 
' 'catch your rabbit." The first step in habit formation 
is to determine the habit to be formed. Demonstration is 
usually the best way of getting this phase of the process 
consciously before the children. 

If children go down the steps noisily, it is plainly the 
business of the teacher to demonstrate, or have some pupil 
demonstrate, a quiet and easy way of descending the 
stairs. If the seat positions are generally bad there should 
be a demonstration of good positions. If high-school 
students walk heavily over the floor, a demonstration of a 
quiet way of walking, by both teacher and pupils, should 
be made after attention has been called to the noisy walking 
in vogue. If the voices of the children in the reading 
exercises are pitched too high or too low, the proper pitch 
should be presented to them. If the handwriting is of 
bad form, the folding of paper poorly done, or what you 
will, in the interest of conservation the right form should 
be contrasted with the wrong form that responsibility may 
be placed where it belongs, not with the decided purpose 
of placing responsibility, but, as Bagley points out, for the 
purpose of /'focalizing the attention upon the thing to be 
done." 1 

Though this first step often lacks definiteness and de- 
tail and though there is often an insufficient amount of 
comparison to insure a definite notion, in the mam it can 
be said that society has always been relatively long on this 

1 Educative Process, Bagley. 



HABIT FORMATION 1 25 

phase of the process. This is illustrated in the words of 
Portia: "I can easier teach twenty what were good to 
be done than be one of the twenty to follow mine own 
teaching." x Indeed, it is traditional that mankind is 
inclined to be more interested in what ought to be done than 
in the specific ways of its accomplishment. 

Second Step in Teaching Habit. — Once the thing to be 
done is clearly understood, the biggest problem of habit 
formation confronts the teacher ; namely, the launching of 
as strong and decided an initiative as possible, 2 a deduc- 
tion which James made from Bain's treatment of "The 
Moral Habits." To throw the self into the undertaking 
with all the power one can summon is essential to an ac- 
complishment. Again we know what ought to be done but 
just what stimuli to control and how to control them are 
the problems that perplex the beginner when he finds 
himself high and dry upon the shore line of failure, after 
the first wave of mere curiosity has spent its force. 

It is in this second step in the process that the "born 
teacher" shines. In fact the possession of this power 
usually wins for its possessor the enviable title of "a 
born teacher." Doubtless such teachers have been able 
to analyze their own motives and those of their children 
more easily than have the less efficient in the profession, 
and to put into practical operation the generalizations 
thus obtained. And while all great teachers doubtless 
possess the innate capacity to grasp and apply this vital 
principle, it does not follow in any sense that this control 
cannot be acquired by those who possess less training and 
natural ability ; nor does it follow that the so-called "born 
teachers" cannot be improved by systematic training in 
1 The Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare. 2 Psychology, James. 



126 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

this field. The fact is that experience justifies the opposite 
conclusion. 

Back of this strong and decided initiative is an emotional 
matrix that is the key to the situation. The great leaders 
of all ages have understood this impulse to action and they 
have known how to stimulate it effectively. Feeling is 
the essence of the impulse to action ; and he who can stimu- 
late it systematically and consistently, and properly associate 
it with the desired action, will have little trouble in secur- 
ing cooperation in any enterprise that he sees fit to under- 
take. 

The teacher's problem is a practical one. How can one 
systematically and consistently stimulate children so as to 
arouse this emotional response? With most teachers who 
are successful this process is implicit. They know that 
they do it, but they have never carefully analyzed the 
process into its several steps. They are masters of the art, 
but they are unable to guide their pupils to a mastery 
of the same art. It is at this point that the supervision of 
teaching will break down unless the how can be discovered 
and passed along to the one being supervised. Many an 
excellent teacher is of little value as a supervisor because 
he is unable to reduce his art to the fundamental principles 
which underlie it. 

This emotional background is undoubtedly the great 
source of racial and personal values. The former is ordi- 
narily attained through instinctive functioning, and the 
latter is secured by the emotional attitudes that have been 
engendered through personal and racial experience. The 
teacher who is to determine the destiny of the children 
whom she teaches must harken back to these fountain 
heads for inspiration and propelling impulse. 



HABIT FORMATION 127 

The value of the instincts in this phase of method is 
enormous. On entering school the child has few conscious 
values, growing out of experience, that he wishes to con- 
trol. He is brimful of curiosity, pride, and pugnacity. 
These three instincts alone furnish an equipment for 
wonderful results. The first holds the attention fast 
to the folk- tales presented in the primary grades, when 
handled skillfully by the teacher. Curiosity must be ap- 
pealed to. Concreteness is an essential in stimulating it. 
The illustrations of present-day readers are excellent in 
this connection. Some of the child's experiences relevant 
to the incidents of the story should be recalled. Illus- 
trative drawings upon paper and upon the board by the 
children will add to their quota of interest. Modeling in 
clay will aid the constructive imagination while the intona- 
tion of the teacher's voice, facial expressions, expressed 
anxiety, all tend to stimulate this instinct until a high degree 
of enthusiasm is aroused. 

While this many-sided appeal to the child's curiosity is 
usually sufficient to maintain a high degree of attention in 
the story, it will take more than this to keep up the interest 
until new words are learned, new accents mastered, and a 
freedom of movement is attained. At this point the teacher 
should draw upon the spirit of emulation. The pride and 
pugnacity of the child should be appealed to. It is these 
instincts that generate a flood of enthusiasm upon the 
playground and upon the athletic field. They produce 
skill in shooting, riding, and swimming ; in baseball, tennis, 
and basket ball ; in billiards, tenpins, and golf. They are 
frequently the power back of social organizations, business 
enterprises, and combinations in trade and politics. They 
ramify and stimulate our whole social structure from the 



128 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

simple games in the nursery to the great maneuvers upon 
the board of trade. 

The teacher should draw upon these instincts wisely 
and continuously in those phases of work which in the be- 
ginning are not interesting. Spelling, writing, and pro- 
nunciation, may be interesting to the children of the gram- 
mar grades and to secondary students because they are 
capable of recognizing the relation of these things to the 
ends they have set up for themselves to accomplish. Not 
so with small children. The intrinsic value makes little 
appeal to them. The social instincts can always be relied 
upon to make a direct appeal. And while one should be 
judicious in the stimulation of these instincts he need not 
be so conservative as the puritanic school of educators is 
accustomed to advise. An appeal to one's own experience 
is sufficient to substantiate this statement. 

With the growth in the experience and maturity of the 
child there should be consistent shifting of emphasis from 
these instinctive values to those growing out of experience. 
Neither value will long be absent from the child's con- 
sciousness. It is a question of relative emphasis that the 
teacher must take into account. If the proper emphasis 
is placed upon these values, the time should come soon 
when the child is anxious to master the processes of arith- 
metic because they will give him quantitative control of 
some value which he has set up to secure. Because of his 
liking for spelling, history, physiology, or other subjects, 
he sees that these subjects relate directly to the thing he 
wishes to accomplish. 

One test of good teaching is the character of the motive 
that prompts the act. This is just as true in the method of 
habit forming as it is true in the mastery of inductive and 



HABIT FORMATION 129 

deductive controls. Ultimately the student should be 
interested in improving his writing for the social service 
it will render him. His interest in perfecting the funda- 
mentals in arithmetic, a good form in language, the re- 
tention of the salient facts of history, should ultimately 
be coupled with the intrinsic and specific values of these 
subjects. 

If the teacher wants to arouse a maximum emotional 
response for the drill work undertaken, in the first place he 
will bring into the child's consciousness the significance of 
the habit to be established. To this end life aims must 
be built up and associated with the proposed habits. In 
the second place he will stimulate the social instincts to 
supplement the motive generated by these life aims. 

In geography one can interest pupils in the location 
and boundaries of political and physiographical divisions, 
in the location and the population of cities, and in the 
distribution of products and industries, by showing that 
this information will materially aid them in interpreting the 
articles they read in papers and magazines on travel, and 
especially on industrial pursuits. As maturity increases, 
and a personal sense of social obligations is more clearly 
understood, the teacher may increase the emphasis upon 
this appeal. Because it is the main appeal of maturity, 
it should not be neglected in guiding the child's activity. 

Third Step in Teaching Habit. — One may be momen- 
tarily interested in the formation of some fundamental 
habit and yet not have the stamina or strength of character 
to hold fast to the purpose he has set out to attain until 
he accomplishes it. Consistency of purpose is a necessity 
in the establishment of habits. Impulsiveness, change- 
ableness, and fluctuating enthusiasm will frequently need 



130 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

to be overcome in the fight for automatic control. One 
thing is certain, and that is that there must be no "back- 
ing down," no "-letting up," until the habit is formed. 

Many teachers of magnetic personality who understand 
how to arouse appropriate emotional responses fail in the 
formation of fundamental habits because they do not 
realize that permanent habits are extremely hard to form, 
and that they are formed only after persistent and constant 
repetition. 

Repetition is the watchword. Not mere repetition, but 
repetition saturated with enthusiasm and differentiated 
at critical points by sharp discrimination. Repetition in 
concert is ineffective as a device in habit formation because 
the cognitive factor is in the background. In learning to 
count, a child will say over and over again n, 12, and 15, 
unless his teacher establishes an association with 12 which 
will force 13 instead of 15 into his consciousness. Dis- 
crimination is essential to patch up the little defects in the 
habit. Memory gems are too frequently taught by the 
concert method. Since the rhyme is learned easily, the 
teacher draws a wrong conclusion as to the value of concert 
work in the teaching of habit. 

School administration offers a very serious drawback 
to the formation of adequate habits, in that it interferes 
with the proper amount of repetition. Teachers usually 
cut the course of study into eight sections. The teacher 
of each grade feels responsible for everything assigned to 
her. From the standpoint of knowledge this can be cared 
for easily ; from the standpoint of habit, never. Teachers 
who are conscious of the significance of repetition in the 
process of establishing habits will never assume that the 
drill work done in the preceding grades is adequate. It 



HABIT FORMATION 131 

makes no difference how well it was done, it needs to be checked 
and tested at intervals to insure permanent results. 

Teachers in the intermediate and grammar grades should 
interview the former teachers of their children in order to 
determine more clearly their essential needs. Teachers 
should familiarize themselves also with the course of study 
to the extent of selecting the fundamental drill exercises 
involved, that nothing which ought to be done will be 
neglected. 

We have experienced much of the cyclic presentation 
of subject-matter, and while a moderate use of it is justified 
by good pedagogy it is reasonably certain that fewer 
cycles will be needed if administrators see to it that the 
fundamental skills be accumulative in character by passing 
them on to successive teachers. In a way this is still largely 
an implicit responsibility. Never will the child come into 
his own until it has become explicit in administrative and 
professional circles. Some one will say that the over- 
crowded curriculum precludes the possibility of carrying 
out such a visionary scheme. Not infrequently sub- 
normality with its accompanying slow rate of classroom 
work is due to failure in the fundamental habits. Stu- 
dents with good memories (so-called) usually rank high 
in class work and make advancement easily. If one 
through proper systemization and cooperation can make all 
the children's memories relatively good, he will have more 
time for supplementary work. 

Attentive repetition is a responsibility that rests not only 
upon the work of the particular classroom and the par- 
ticular teacher, but upon supervising officers and those who 
are responsible for the carrying out of the course of study. 
Frequent visitations of grade teachers to rooms above and 



132 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

below their own, conferences by supervisors relative to the 
extent of carrying this work on from grade to grade, to 
detect if any teacher or group of teachers is neglecting 
this responsibility, will make for better conditions than one 
is likely to realize through unsystematic effort. 

Fourth Step in Teaching Habit. — The oft-quoted re- 
mark of the immortal Rip that he would not count this one 
[drink] has a positive significance in the establishment of 
habits. As Professor James pointed out, "He may not 
count it, and a kind Heaven may not count it ; but it is 
being counted none the less. Down among his nerve cells 
and fibers the molecules are counting it, registering and 
storing it up to be used against him when the next tempta- 
tion arises." * It is the exceptions, either by consent or 
habit, which open the floodgates of the impulses, permitting 
them to flow down the old habit path only to make resist- 
ance to the new order greater than ever. 

Once a movement is on foot to break up a bad habit by 
the substitution of a new one, after the foregoing steps have 
been taken, the teacher must be eternally vigilant to the end 
that no exceptions occur. Frequently teachers set out 
to secure better positions, better grammatical form, better 
articulation and pronunciation, better writing, and many 
other things, but soon fail to maintain a persistent un- 
swerving front, with the result that little or nothing is 
accomplished. 

At first there is frequently an abundance of enthusiasm 
and everything goes on well. Then unexpected troubles 
begin. The most obstinate boy in the class, apparently 
by mistake, neglects to do the thing required. The teacher 
tries to justify this lack of duty on various grounds. Soon 

1 Psychology, James. 



HABIT FORMATION 



33 



others do likewise until the attempted reform has passed 
into " ancient" history and the children are more deeply 
rooted in the wrong habit than before the reform was 
attempted. 

More success in this sort of endeavor will be attained 
if relatively few difficult things are attempted at one time 
and if those few things are held to tenaciously until the 
victory is won. If rightly won, it will be enjoyed by stu- 
dents and teacher alike. We must insist that it will never 
be economically done until the student does enjoy the new 
skill he possesses. 

The four steps enumerated above — the first by Bagley, 
the second and third which are deductions from Bain by 
Professor James, a.nd the last by James — should be made 
explicit by teachers who are really concerned in teaching 
habits economically. Teaching fundamentals are no less 
subject to fundamental laws than are the other endeavors 
of man. It is only by a scientific application of these laws 
that fundamental skills can be taught most economically. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE EMOTIONAL FACTOR IN TEACHING 

Emotional Aspects of the Self. — Rational and automatic 
controls have been treated as if each were a distinct and 
separate faculty functioning independently in the control 
of human affairs. In reality nothing is farther from the 
truth. They are but two aspects or manifestations of the 
many-sided self in its attempt to come in contact with 
and to control its environment. Each has been treated 
separately to insure a greater degree of simplicity and clear- 
ness. In like manner and for the same purpose, the emo- 
tional aspect of the self is to receive separate and isolated 
treatment here. 

The emotions are a potent factor in the stimulation and 
direction of one's thoughts and actions. Emotional inertia 
is coexistent with intellectual and motor inertia, and vice 
versa. A great crisis like the World War stirs the emo- 
tions, which in turn whip the intellect and will into a state 
of amazing virility. Mob psychology and business acumen, 
alike in the last analysis, reveal a dominant emotional factor. 

Interest 

Though interest is a common phase of the emotional 
factor of method, from the standpoint of both terminology 
and content, there is an abundance of evidence to warrant 

134 



THE EMOTIONAL FACTOR IN TEACHING 135 

the conclusion that its meaning is not always explicit 
even to many who use the term fluently. This is due in 
no small measure to an overlapping terminology both in 
pedagogical literature and in common parlance. It has 
been due also to a willingness on the part of educational 
writers to employ a traditional technique somewhat re- 
mote from common usage. Common usage is necessarily 
most easily understood and consequently is the most effec- 
tive terminology one can employ, provided the content is 
definite and explicit. 

Simple Interest. — "Isn't it interesting?" and " wasn't 
it interesting?" are very familiar questions. These re- 
marks are interesting in this connection because they 
afford an opportunity to lay bare the meaning of the interest 
referred to. "Interesting" as here used means possessing 
the quality which stimulates curiosity with its accompany- 
ing feelings and arouses a sense of the unusual, the familiar, 
or the new. An interesting thing possesses qualities which 
in themselves give satisfaction because they arouse an in- 
stinctive reaction, either emotional or intellectual, or both, 

A stranger in the community, the first airplane, a 
large pumpkin, situations in contrast, new clothes, the re- 
turn of an old friend, and an exhibit of superior products 
are examples of situations which interest one because they 
make the instinctive appeal referred to above. 

Twofold Aspect of Simple Interest 

In simple interest two factors are involved, namely, the 
unpurposive self and the situation which stimulates the 
instinctive response. The self in the case of simple interest 
has no "axe to grind." It is unconscious of a purpose to 
be fulfilled or an end to be attained. It simply is yielding 



I36 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

to the stimuli of its immediate environment because of the 
satisfaction they give. The attention manifestly is spon- 
taneous. The emotional element which sustains this attention 
is simple interest. 

A Biological Background. — Simple interest is therefore 
instinctive in origin. The child comes into the world with 
many ready-made reactions to stimuli, the function of 
which is to generate this form of interest. Only" two 
conditions are required to produce simple interest, ap- 
propriate stimuli and a normal condition of the instincts 
with which to respond to these stimuli. 

The inclination of children to discover, to investigate, to 
know, to understand, to play, to enjoy stories, and to 
appreciate the new or the unusual is a manifestation of 
the normal functioning of the most fundamental of the 
human instincts. 

Suitable Stimuli. — The responsibility of the one who 
would direct the unfolding life of the child is both manifest 
and enormous. The instincts which spur the child to in- 
vestigate and better understand his environment should be 
nurtured by supplying stimuli best suited to keep them 
functioning naturally. There should be ever present a 
genuine mixture of the new, the unusual, and the familiar. 
Such a mixture provides adequately for both the gradation 
and sequence of materials. It imposes upon the teacher 
the responsibility of systematizing the stimuli he employs. 

Importance of Simple Interest. — The early appearance 
and strong manifestation of simple interest in the life of the 
child indicate its fundamental character. It is the key to 
sensation and subsequent steps in conception. It stimu- 
lates activity and thereby provides for normal physical 
development. Stimulated under proper conditions, it is 



THE EMOTIONAL FACTOR IN TEACHING 137 

an elixir of life to the growing child. Substituted for motive, 
it dwarfs the spirit of research and investigation by re- 
quiring an ever-changing environment. 

Motive 

The term motive, like that of interest, is familiar both in 
common parlance and in the technical language of the 
student of education. There is • no good reason why a 
single meaning for it should not be commonly accepted 
and thereby avoid the confusion which frequently arises 
when the term is used. 

Its Use in the Law. — In the law the term motive has 
always had a specific meaning. This meaning has gradually 
filtered through to the masses who use it intelligently. 
Oftentimes in criminal cases the whole trend of the pro- 
cedure of the prosecution is to establish the motive of the 
defendant. What the prosecution means by motive is 
implicitly understood by both the defendant and the jury. 
A simple analysis will lay bare the factors of motive. 

The Threefold Aspect of Motive. — Every motivated 
act consists of three distinct conscious states. First, the 
actor is clearly aware that he is performing the act in its 
various stages of progress ; secondly, he is conscious of a 
certain end, or goal, or ideal, which he wishes to realize ; and 
thirdly, he is conscious of the relation of the act performed 
to the value which he wishes to realize through the instru- 
mentality of the act. 

If the defendant can establish the fact that he was not 
conscious of the value referred to by the prosecution when 
the act was performed, or if he can prove that he was un- 
conscious of the relation of the act to the satisfaction he 
admits, or if he can establish beyond the shadow of a doubt 



138 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

that he was unconscious of the act when it was performed, 
he will be acquitted on the ground that he had no motive 
for performing it. 

It is in this specific sense that the term motive is used 
here. Motive differs from simple interest in that it is al- 
ways associated with an act which the self performs, not 
for the direct satisfaction of the act, but for the satisfaction 
which comes to the self as the result of its having per- 
formed the act. 

The Meaning of Motive. — One spades the garden, plants 
potatoes, cultivates them, and finally digs them, not be- 
cause these several acts in themselves give satisfaction. 
As a matter of fact, they seldom do. But because the self 
by means of the imagination keeps before itself the satis- 
faction of possessing and eating the potatoes which will 
result from the aforesaid acts. One's staying on the job 
to the end depends upon his emotional status. If he likes 
potatoes and can keep before himself in imagination this 
feeling of satisfaction, to the degree that it outweighs the 
dissatisfaction resulting from the labor involved, the work 
will go on to the completion of the job. If at any time the 
imagination wanes while dissatisfaction for the work in- 
creases, there is likely to be a discontinuance of work. 
A genuine motive is present when the self is keenly aware 
of the satisfaction which will result from the act being per- 
formed. Motive is the emotional aspect of an act which is 
performed in behalf of some premeditated goal. 

The Twofold Nature oe the Goal or Ideal 

The values associated with a motivated act are either 
generic or specific. The former is not inherent in the act 
itself, while the latter is directly related to and dependent 



THE EMOTIONAL FACTOR IN TEACHING 139 

upon it. For example, a pupil may study chemistry for 
credit in order to be able to announce glibly to the world 
that he possesses a knowledge of chemistry, or to show that 
he can talk intelligently upon matters pertaining to atoms, 
molecules, and compounds. The end sought is not alone 
dependent upon chemistry. He is using chemistry as a 
tool with which to gain 'distinction, social recognition, a 
social superiority. He may gain this same distinction 
through a study of history, literature, geology, or any other 
subject. Consequently, the value uppermost in the con- 
sciousness of this pupil is generic in character. Generic 
values may be obtained in many ways and by a study of dif- 
ferent subjects. On the other hand, if one studies chemistry 
in view of a better understanding of medicine he is seeking 
a value which no other subject can supply. Such a value 
is inherent in the subject. It is a specific value. 

Generic and Specific Values. — The educational signifi- 
cance of these two values is far-reaching. The ultimate 
consequences of seeking either of these values, psychologi- 
cally speaking, are as unlike as the results of playing store 
and those of actually running a store; of telling how a 
family should be reared and actually rearing one. The 
former dominates on the playground, in the kindergarten, 
and the primary departments ; the other prevails in practi- 
cal life outside the school, and should dominate largely the 
work of the intermediate and grammar grades and that of 
institutions of higher learning. 

If pupils do not develop early an interest in subject- 
matter because of a consciousness of its relation to certain 
aims and goals they have set up or should set up for them- 
selves to realize, and if they do not develop a subject-matter 
bent before leaving it, serious consequences will follow. 



140 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Such a condition prevails when pupils remain in school 
through parental pressure, when they drop out of school 
on reaching the legal age, and when they discontinue school 
on the completion of the grammar grades. 

Holding pupils in school by stimulating immediate 
interest or by an appeal to generic values is better than 
turning them out. It does not compare in value to that 
which exists when subject-matter is studied because of its 
direct bearing upon a certain purpose which the pupil has 
set up for himself to realize. 

A Proper Use of Generic Values. — Specific habits are 
most economically established when the initiative and 
enthusiasm required in their formation are supplied by an 
appeal to generic values. For this reason an appeal to 
generic values in the elementary and intermediate grades is 
legitimate. Unless, however, serious consideration is given 
to the intrinsic function of subject-matter, pupils will tire 
of school in the intermediate and grammar grades and 
choose to leave it. Fortunate is the pupil whose teacher 
gives major consideration to the specific values of subject- 
matter and draws upon generic values only for supple- 
mentary drill on the fundamentals. 

Play, Work, and Drudgery 

Play. — The classification of systematic human ac- 
tivity into three classes is a psychological one. In 
the last analysis this classification is based upon satis- 
faction. If the act itself gives satisfaction without thought 
of a more remote object of attainment, the activity is 
play. "Dropping the handkerchief," " blind man's buff," 
"golf," "baseball," — indeed, fancy work, reading, design- 



THE EMOTIONAL FACTOR IN TEACHING 141 

ing, playing the board of trade, and similar activities may 
be play for some who indulge in them. 

Work. — Work differs from play in that the activity 
indulged in, though not distasteful, would not be performed 
were it not for the satisfaction which the self anticipates 
will result from the act and not in the act. If hoeing 
potatoes were play, one would deem it a privilege to hoe in 
his neighbor's garden. It is not the satisfaction from the 
hoeing that keeps one on the job, but the anticipated satis- 
faction resulting from the hoeing. Hoeing, therefore, under 
such conditions is work. Most of life's problems require 
work to solve them, and most of the genuine happiness in 
the world comes in the form of anticipated satisfactions 
which are associated with the activities of daily life. 

Drudgery. — The happiness of play and work is inter- 
mingled somewhat with drudgery. Strange as it may 
seem, drudgery too is a psychic quality. What is play for 
one may be work for another and drudgery for a third. 
It all depends upon one's habits, experiences, condition of 
health, and the fruitfulness of his imagination. Activity 
does not become drudgery when it in itself gives satisfaction 
to the actor or when an anticipated satisfaction stimu- 
lates the act. It does become drudgery, however, when a 
disagreeable act is performed to prevent a positive dissatis- 
faction which is greater than that caused by the act. For 
example, the manual work of prisoners is usually drudgery. 
The activity does not satisfy and the result does not satisfy, 
because it does not in any way affect the aims and purposes 
of the doer. The prisoner works because the dissatisfaction 
caused by the work is less than that which would follow 
the punishment that would result from his refusal to do 
what is demanded of him. 



142 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

The educational bearing of these three forms of activity 
is significant. The problem at hand should be so related 
to the pupil's life that it will appeal to his basic instincts 
and thus produce play; or it should be so related to his 
aims and purposes that it will arouse anticipated satis- 
faction and thus produce work. If school activities cannot 
be related to the pupils' values they should be discon- 
tinued. The moment school work becomes drudgery it 
generates a feeling of aversion for the subject-matter re- 
lated to it and thereby makes further work upon the sub- 
ject distasteful and unsatisfactory. 

Examples of Drudgery. — Keeping children in after 
school to complete an unprepared lesson, the reading of a 
selection a number of times as a punishment for failure to 
prepare it properly, the spelling of a list of words a hundred 
times, or the solution of a problem twenty times, are ex- 
amples of devices employed by inexperienced teachers. 
These make school work drudgery and consequently create 
a feeling of aversion for the already neglected subject and 
thereby make its accomplishment much more difficult. 

Ideals and Prejudices. — The significance of ideals as 
positive educational agencies has been implied in con- 
nection with motive and more specifically in connection 
with generic and specific values. Both of these values are 
idealized satisfactions. Without flights of the imagination 
in which the self holds before its consciousness, as it were, 
situations not as they are but as it would have them and 
without ideals to stimulate and direct human energy, 
progress is at a standstill, work degenerates into drudgery, 
and hope vanishes from the human breast. 

One of the most worthy aims of modern education is to 
nurture the unfolding imagination of children. Literature, 



THE EMOTIONAL FACTOR IN TEACHING 143 

art, and design ; history, geography, and civics — in fact 
all subjects properly taught stimulate this unfolding of the 
imagination and thus pave the way to new values, new 
problems, new forms of work, and new forms of happiness. 

An ideal is an offspring of the creative imagination, 
which has no concrete counterpart, though it has char- 
acteristics which give satisfaction greater than do those of 
the concrete with which it is most closely associated. 
The satisfaction it arouses possesses the self. One's 
psychic energy is focused upon the ideal because in a very 
true sense it has a pull upon this energy. Closely associated 
with the ideal, though often contrasted with it, is another 
very important educational factor — the prejudice. It 
differs in function from the ideal in that it seems to hold 
or push the directing energy of the self rather than pull 
it as in the case of the ideal. A religious or political 
prejudice causes one to "stay put." Under such con- 
ditions he is satisfied with prevailing conditions. When 
thus affected he has a feeling of repulsion for other re- 
ligions or other parties. They seem to keep him from 
them by a psychic push. 

As a rule prejudices retard human progress. They pre- 
vent adjustments and are the source of much stupidity. 
On the other hand, certain prejudices are safeguards of 
human welfare. A prejudice against lying, stealing, decep- 
tion, disloyalty, and the slacker make the straight and 
narrow road to duty not only easier, but more certain of 
being traveled. 

A great responsibility rests upon one who prejudices 
the minds of the young. The responsibility is great be- 
cause of the psychic tenacity of the prejudice and because 
of its far-reaching results upon the life of its possessor and 



144 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

upon those whom he influences. The great wars of history, 
religious persecutions, and non-adjustments of many sorts 
can all be traced to ulcerous prejudices which beset the 
talents of men. Our guidance in this phase of teaching has 
been anything but explicit. Each teacher has followed 
his own will and the dictates of his own conscience. 
The law of chance has been uninterrupted. The effect 
has been a slow and laborious struggle in every progress 
the world has made. The great World War is an ob- 
jectification of the harmful prejudices that were generated 
through the unwise direction of the peoples of the Central 
Empires. With our present status of knowledge it is safe 
to follow the advice that one should attempt to establish 
only those prejudices which have a universal sanction, and 
consequently strike at the very heart of human happiness. 
Prejudices against dishonesty, deception, untidiness, irre- 
sponsibility, disrespect, shiftlessness, civic indifference, and 
ignorance are of this character. 

On the other hand, the prejudices which hamper freedom, 
progress, happiness, and a universal outlook, should be 
mellowed and ultimately dissipated. Universal knowledge, 
research, a broad social contact, and especially participation 
in the activities which arouse the prejudices will do much to 
atrophy them. There is still need of much detailed method 
in this field. 

Summary. — Viewed from the standpoint of the emo- 
tions, good teaching consists in a judicious stimulation of 
simple interest and motive and in a wise development of 
suitable ideals and prejudices. There should be a gradual 
growth from a dominance of native interest (simple interest) 
which controls the child's activities when he enters school, 
to a dominance of motive for subject-matter because of a 



THE EMOTIONAL FACTOR IN TEACHING 145 

consciousness of its relation to vital life interests and 
problems. 

Simple interest is peculiarly well-suited to stimulate 
sensation, to energize drill exercises, and to supplement 
motive in times of fag and distraction. Motive, on the 
other hand, is an indication of a definite purpose. Under 
its spell pupils have a definitely established aim and pro- 
ceed to select and apply materials in its realization. It 
is the dominant emotional stimulus of after-school days, 
and consequently should be initiated early in the school 
career of children. 

When simple interest is the dominant stimulus to pupil 
activity, such activity is play for the child. When his 
activity is directed by positive motive he is at work. When 
he performs an act because of a negative motive the act 
is drudgery for him. 

Since ideals and prejudices are important factors in 
motive and since they may or may not be in harmony with 
the social welfare, it is highly important that the teacher 
stimulate only those ideals and prejudices which are in 
accord with social sanction. 



CHAPTER IX 
MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 

The Meaning of Responsibility. — The state has pre- 
scribed an age of responsibility. By this is meant that the 
individual has a free will in conducting his legal affairs. 
An "age of responsibility" has a more subtle and significant 
social meaning than this, and one fraught with greater 
social significance. It means that one has acquired the 
power of self -direction, including the twofold process of 
selecting aims and the specific means by which the aims 
can be realized. It means that one who is responsible is 
free to initiate endeavor and that he must take the conse- 
quences of the results of such endeavor, or lack of endeavor, 
at whatever cost. 

The presence of a sense of responsibility, wherever and 
however it may be manifested, indicates that the in- 
dividual has come into his own right as a social factor. It 
means he has cast off the last vestige of overlordship and 
has emerged into the full stature of psychic life. 

Earmarks of Responsibility. — The psychic character- 
istics of such a changed condition are manifold and signif- 
icant. Interests are more highly specialized than before. 
Selected processes are more in evidence; evaluation is a 
more dominant factor ; and energy is more specifically 
directed in the laying out and execution of plans. Psy- 
chologically one has passed from the dominance of generic 

146 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 147 

values to that of specific values ; from a state of dominant 
external influence to one of internal direction. 

The Evolution of Responsibility. — A sense of responsi- 
bility is an acquired and not an inherited trait. In this 
respect the child is largely a victim of his environment. 
His institutional contacts — the home, the church, and the 
school — are by far the most influential of the environmental 
agencies which determine his destiny. 

The home is perhaps a more potent agency in the crea- 
tion of responsibility than is the school. The church, 
because of its limited opportunity, is the least significant 
in this connection of these institutions. Herbert Spencer 
pointed out that one of the fundamental aims of educa- 
tion is adequate training in the "rearing and disciplining 
of offspring." 1 For some unaccountable reason the school 
has lacked either the insight or the courage, or both, to 
face this responsibility. 

We have seen fit to enrich the ideals, to increase the 
knowledge, to determine the skills of pupils, while we have 
refused to supply instruction and training in the high 
schools, which bear directly upon the home training of 
children. This position of the public school is analogous 
to that of a state which provides no educational direction 
for its future citizens. The position of the school in this 
matter is so obtuse and the results so far-reaching, that 
one wonders why private schools do not engage in this 
work. The business acumen of private educators has often 
led them to sense public needs before those who direct 
the agencies of public education. This crying need of 
society may give occasion for history to repeat itself. 

The above suggestion is an infringement upon the right 
1 Education, Spencer. 



148 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

of students of school administration. Our specific purpose 
here is to point out ways and means of conducting the 
classroom in order to economize the time and energy of 
pupils by pointing out practical ways of stimulating a 
positive degree of responsibility. 

Character of Teaching When Responsibility is Absent. — 
leaching which touches the " learning spot" before a 
marked sense of responsibility has been established is in- 
deed a fine art. It involves an explicit understanding of 
individual characteristics, of racial tendencies, of values 
associated with both, of established habits and their bearing 
upon the learning process, and of the appropriate stimuli 
to use under the circumstances. In this stage of teaching 
the responsibility is primarily with the teacher. She may 
assume it, or she may shirk it and thus be a drag to the 
proper unfolding of the child's life. In the latter event, 
there may be no prick of conscience or no retribution on 
her part, but there will be an unnecessary impediment 
in the life of the child, an impediment which society is 
morally obligated to prevent. 

As the pupil becomes more and more self-directing, 
teaching as a consciously directed process becomes less 
necessary. It behooves the teacher of children, therefore, 
to arouse this sense of responsibility by every means known 
to the profession. In the present stage of method one can 
scarcely hope that a discussion of this topic will exhaust 
the list of means, or evaluate satisfactorily the relative 
merit of each member in the list. 

Subject-Matter : A Positive Means 

A most wholesome and far-reaching means of arousing 
responsibility is subject-matter itself. It is both positive 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 149 

and concrete. Responsibility develops from a thorough 
understanding of the sequence of topics in an organization, 
and of their relative value. It is the type of responsibility 
possessed by true scientists, historians, economists, artists, 
— in fact by all who have mastered a particular section 
of the world's knowledge. It is the sort of responsibility 
possessed by Darwin, Koch, Pasteur, Gibbon, Macaulay, 
Galton, Kidd, Spencer, Franklin, and a multitude equally 
illustrious in their respective fields of knowledge. 

Once imbued with the spirit of investigation and 
research, and fired with a desire for greater insight and a 
more thorough mastery of materials, the pupil is well on 
the road to independence and self -direction. 

The Function of Organization. — An advance towards a 
sense of responsibility is attained when the pupil con- 
ceives the inner relation of structure and function. Until 
he becomes conscious that purpose determines structure 
and consequently is revealed by it, he will not take pride in 
perfecting his own handiwork or find pleasure in scrutiniz- 
ing and evaluating the handiwork of others. Teachers who 
do not stress order, consistency, relative values, and the 
intrinsic function of subject-matter have not taken ad- 
vantage of their opportunity to enlarge the child's sense 
of responsibility. 

The Causal Factor. — Once the relative value of the parts 
of an organization is known, it is a much easier task to 
recognize the causal factor. Nothing will give a keener 
edge to the intellect than experience in determining the 
causal factor of events and situations. Who has not ob- 
served the wonderful intellectual development of pupils 
which resulted from a brief course in physical geography, 
physics, botany, chemistry, economics, or sociology? 



150 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Many instructors either stop short of the causal factor 
entirely or fail to make it explicit. It is not enough to 
know that water runs "up hill" in a siphon, that great 
beds of coal and oil are preserved deep in the earth, that 
lime-water will cure certain forms of indigestion, that 
a balanced ration for animals pays, that ventilation is 
important, and that the coldest water is at the bottom of the 
pond until the temperature of the pond reaches four degrees 
centigrade or lower, and then it is at the top of the pond. 
The child has an inalienable right to know why all of 
these things are true. 

A longing for the truth is the by-product of systematic truth 
getting. Pupils who have been taught to search dili- 
gently for the why and the wherefore of effects, and who 
through such teaching have found genuine pleasure, will 
continue in this attitude of investigation when dependent 
upon their own initiative. Teaching might well be judged 
by the investigating attitude of the pupils taught. 

Mastery of Fundamentals. — Effective investigation de- 
pends in a large measure upon one's equipment to carry 
it on economically, from the standpoint of time, energy, 
and relative worth. Relative worth is closely related to 
one's standards, both subjective and objective. Economy 
of time and energy depends in a large measure upon the 
character of one's fundamental habits. This is especially 
true in the mastery of subjects which involve a high degree 
of technique. One must have reduced- the fundamental 
processes to habit before he will find satisfaction in any 
investigation involving arithmetical values. Without such 
a mastery mental energy will not be sufficiently released 
to accomplish what the self will respect. An attempt to 
express one's views in a foreign language, or to reveal one's 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 151 

notions through an unfamiliar art exemplifies the impor- 
tance of a mastery of the fundamentals in any field of 
endeavor. 

Practically all pupils enjoy the initial phases of foreign 
languages, mathematics, grammar, natural science, econom- 
ics, and sociology. Only those who acquire a fair degree 
of mastery over the fundamentals continue to relish these 
subjects later when success with the new aspects depends 
upon a thorough mastery of the old. 

In all subjects in which the efficacy of the main structure 
depends primarily upon a fundamental foundation, good 
pedagogy as well as good sense warrants that a relatively 
large portion of the time be given to virile and exhaustive 
reviews. 

Problematic Assignments. — A sense of responsibility 
comes from one's meeting his specific obligations in solving 
problems. Such obligations are easily imposed through 
the instrumentality of the assignment. The mastery. and 
definite report of problematic assignments will inculcate 
ideals of responsibility and habits of accomplishment which 
will reach to, and affect, after-school activities. The most 
important prerequisite of a problematic assignment is a 
thorough knowledge of the subject-matter. A thorough 
organization of the subject-matter should precede any 
attempt at a serious assignment. 

It is quite as important that the teacher carefully in- 
vestigate the preparation of the assignment as that she 
prepare the assignment. Unrecognized preparations and 
unacknowledged achievement will generate a feeling of 
indifference for the subject-matter and a lack of confidence 
in the teacher. 

Some teachers prepare good assignments for their pupils 



152 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

with the express purpose of keeping them busy during 
the study period and then proceed to present new material 
during the recitation period. This practice is based upon 
the fallacious belief that it is wasteful to take the important 
time of the recitation period to consider what the child 
has already attempted to acquire. 

In the first place, the normal pupil will not continue 
long to get the assignments with any degree of zest and 
comprehension if no consideration is given to what he has 
accomplished. In the second place, it is erroneous to as- 
sume that an assignment worthy the mettle of pupils will be 
mastered in the preparation. In the third place, this 
practice overlooks the fact that ability to acquire knowledge 
is much more valuable than knowledge itself. This ability 
can be nurtured best through a careful checking up in the 
recitation or by individual supervision and not by mass 
teaching. 

Value or Voluntary Contributions 

Mere routine and a lock-step stifle the elements of 
leadership. Differences and not likenesses in children form 
the background of truly worthy characters. The school 
is duty bound to develop worthy variable traits. 

Individual Reports. — Frequent oppcrtunities for pupils 
to make contributions from supplemental sources should 
be offered. Incidentally these contributions enrich the 
knowledge of the class. Their greatest value, however, 
is for him who makes the contribution. The glow of 
satisfaction, the increased self-respect, the sense of re- 
liability, become indelibly fixed in the personality of him 
who makes the contribution, provided it is worthily done 
and graciously appreciated. Any other result has a 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 1 53 

negative effect so far as establishing responsibility is con- 
cerned. 

Optional Work. — A wide variation in the abilities and 
attainments of children makes optional work an essential 
factor of effective teaching. Since all pupils cannot go 
the same pace, it is important that some special provision 
be made which will insure a maximum accomplishment for 
each. In well-regulated schools this condition is provided 
for by adjusting the assignment to the average ability of 
the class and then providing special aid for the weakest 
of the group, and optional work of a supplemental character 
for the unusually gifted children. 

With all of its defects the country school of a quarter 
century ago was strongest in caring for the unusually 
gifted children. These were given great freedom in thought, 
in rate of accomplishment, and in the materials assigned. 
The graded system with all of its improvement has de- 
cidedly narrowed the range of opportunity of the gifted 
child. Supplemental provisions, such as optional work, 
must be introduced to restore these opportunities for 
maximum development. 

To be effective, optional work should not be merely in- 
cidental or "busy work." It must be an organic part of 
the school program. It should feature in both the assign- 
ment and the recitation with as much prominence as does 
the regular work of the class. 

Those who are trained by consistent daily procedure 
to accomplish what is a master-effort for the majority and 
to assume responsibility for additional subject-matter 
cannot escape the traits of character which make for 
leadership, with all its implied responsibility. Professor 
Whipple's investigations of the gifted child show con- 



154 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

clusively the teacher's responsibility to the most gifted 
of the class. 1 

Experimental Work. — ; Constant acceptance of the utter- 
ances of textbook writers and teachers, by pupils, slowly 
but surely develops a servile dependence which negatives 
the underlying factors in responsibility. 

Genuine experimental work will engender independent 
habits of thinking and thereby establish in the pupil a 
wholesome confidence in his own ability to evaluate the 
situations which confront him. Recent work in nature- 
study, agriculture, cookery, dressmaking, millinery, in- 
cluding design in both the fine and applied arts, is of a 
wholesome experimental character. 

It is not so important from the standpoint of responsi- 
bility that this experimental work produce skill in ex- 
perimentation as that it produce experimental ideals and 
individual confidence. Unfortunately the school has fos- 
tered an enormous amount of docility. Traditional habit 
often dominates the procedure of the classroom in this 
connection and makes it difficult to enter an experimental 
wedge. This difficulty is being gradually overcome and 
there is hope that the readjustment occasioned by the 
World War will accelerate the forces which are overcom- 
ing it. 

Social Approval a Means of Responsibility 

Examples. — The social instincts in a highly civilized 
society are often stronger than the individualistic instincts. 
Examples are legion of individuals laying down their lives 
for principles upon which the security of society depends. 

1 Classes for Gifted Children, Whipple. School and Home Publishing 
Company, Bloomington, Illinois. 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 1 55 

The United States entered the World War for no less a 
reason than this. The American soldiers and their com- 
rades of the allied countries demonstrated the dominance 
of the social instincts over the individualistic, when un- 
usual conditions prevailed. 

One will not consistently and forcibly exert energy in 
the realization of some end unless he has some assurance 
of winning. Few, indeed, will continue long a losing game. 
An effective way of energizing the work of the classroom 
is to make the pupils win. Strong pupils are conscious 
that they are winning and for that reason their work is 
easily motivated. Weak pupils suffer most from this neg- 
lect. It is hardly conceivable that a pupil can keep a 
strong heart for his work when he fails to get the assign- 
ments and when subjected to the criticism, and often the 
punishment, which results from failure. Neither can he 
be expected to have a wholesome attitude towards his work 
when his reports show that he is to be held back while his 
more successful comrades go forward. It requires a 
stalwart soul to keep up good cheer and to retain intel- 
lectual keenness under such conditions. It is unfair to 
expect the weaker children of the class to do it. 
' Pupils Want to Ww. — Each child in the classroom 
must be made to win, if he is to be kept in a wholesome 
learning condition. First of all he must receive the un- 
stinted approval of his teacher. His success must be judged 
in terms of his ability to do. It is the duty of the teacher 
to see to it that he does some things — many things in 
fact — which are complimentary to him. It is due him 
that he know the teacher appreciates his success. Many 
a class with a record for stupidity and indifference has been 
stimulated to brilliant achievement by a teacher capable of 



156 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

showing a gracious appreciation of worthy effort, regardless 
of its absolute merit. 

Consistency is a jewel in this connection. Appreciation 
should not be made cheap or promiscuous. No sensible 
adult cares for the effervescent and indiscriminate compli- 
ments of an injudicious and impulsive person. Pupils 
are quite as sensitive as adults in this particular. They 
ignore and often resent cheap, sentimental, and unwar- 
ranted appreciation. On the other hand, they long for the 
appreciation their effort merits. Such appreciation is due 
them, and when given energizes the entire work of the 
schoolroom. 



School Agencies Which Offer Opportunity to Win 

Many school practices afford concrete opportunity for 
pupils to win the approval their success merits. Dramatiza- 
tion in its various forms is an opportunity of this sort. 
For this reason it is an excellent motivating device for 
reading in the lower grades. In like manner it is effective 
when used in connection with the work in civics, literature, 
history, and arithmetic ; indeed in any subject which lends 
itself to demonstration. 

Exhibits. — When rightly conducted, exhibits are stimu- 
lating educational agencies. They offer opportunity for 
social approval and thereby afford an impetus to greater 
application. This applies especially to effort in habit 
formation and the products of skill. It does not apply to 
phases of school work which deal with thought processes. 
Form lends itself to exhibition, content does not. The 
form side of arithmetic and geography can be improved by 
exhibits. It should be borne in mind, however, that in- 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 157 

judicious exhibits of work in these subjects will materially 
weaken the thought processes involved. Formal subjects, 
such as writing, gymnastics, music, sewing, cooking, manual 
training, painting, and the formal aspects of other subjects, 
are wonderfully improved by frequent exhibits of the work 
completed. Such exhibits not only energize those who pre- 
pare them, but they force comparison and consequently 
result in enriched generalizations. 

Supplementary reports and optional work have been 
discussed as direct agencies of responsibility. They also 
afford special opportunities for pupils to win distinction 
of a wholesome sort. This opportunity should not be 
denied those who can take advantage of it. 

Provision for Classroom Materials. — One of the finest 
forms of service is offered in this connection. Supplemental 
materials needed to develop the various subjects are referred 
to here. It may be some rare historical or geographical 
specimen, vegetables, grains, flowers, insects, implements, 
books, maps — in fact anything that is needed to supple- 
ment the materials presented by the school. Supplying 
these needed materials offers special opportunity for in- 
dividuals to win and through the winning to gain in con- 
fidence and self-respect. 

Definite Class Approval. — Entirely too infrequently, 
opportunities are given for the class as a whole to put its 
stamp of approval or disapproval upon the work of some 
member of the class. A pupil cares far more for the un- 
qualified sanction of all of his comrades than he does for 
that of his teacher. Yet how infrequently are oppor- 
tunities offered for a specific expression of the class on 
the merit of the work done by its individual members. 

One of the best ways of stimulating interest in formal 



158 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

work is through a vote of the class on the relative merit of 
the work of each member. This form of estimating work 
forces a sharp comparison of the work at hand. A pupil 
whose work receives no votes is likely to scrutinize quite 
sharply that of his associate who receives twenty or twenty- 
five votes. He will be more susceptible to suggestions of 
ways to modify his work when he desires to merit the 
consideration received by the work of a comrade. Teachers 
who have not used this method of evaluating results will be 
surprised at the wholesome effect it has. 

Topical Recitation. — The topical recitation, though weak 
in many respects, has at least one redeeming feature. It 
is admirably suited to establish a sense of responsibility. 
The pupil must decide upon the amount and quality of 
the information he needs in order to treat properly the 
topic assigned to him. He knows that the eyes of his 
comrades will be upon him. He knows too that his com- 
rades are able to judge his recitation by comparing it 
with those of the other members of the class. This method 
in the grammar grades and the high school furnishes a 
powerful motive. It is akin to that provided by a place 
on a literary program, a club program, or a commence- 
ment exercise. If adequate opportunity is given for con- 
sidering the merit of the reports it will add decidedly to the 
motive aroused. 

Some Forms of Blackboard Work. — The school will never 
go back to the excessive blackboard work of two or three 
decades ago, because of the dust, the noise, the time wasted, 
and the increased opportunity for distractions of all sorts. 
There is, however, a splendid side to blackboard work, 
which makes a judicious use of it exceedingly meritorious. 
This phase of the work is stressed in geometry especially, 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 159 

and in other forms of mathematics. It should have a 
larger place in other subjects. 

It is exceedingly exhilarating for one to realize that a 
definite responsibility, deepened by the presence of the 
class, is on his shoulders. Such a responsibility is afforded 
one by blackboard work when it deals with problems which 
tax the energy of his classmates. Distractions of black- 
board work can be materially reduced by reducing the 
number sent to the board. Provision should be made for 
the other members of the class to remain at their seats. 
Type exercises should be worked on the blackboard. Other 
exercises expressive of the type may well be worked on 
tablets at the seats. 

Negative Incentives and Incidental Agencies 
and Devices 

In the chapter on emotional controls reference is made 
to the pull and push of stimuli. In this connection we may 
think of them as positive and negative incentives. Those 
referred to above are positive in character. Positive in- 
centives lead to an attitude of investigation and research, 
and to a grasp of the fundamentals of subject-matter. 
Negative incentives act as a whip upon the pupil and conse- 
quently prevent the fervor which should accompany inves- 
tigation, and dampen the ardor for a greater mastery of 
knowledge for which there is a feeling of positive need. 

In spite of their relative inferiority, negative incentives 
must be employed until more is known of the teaching 
process. Even the most inspiring teachers find it inad- 
visable to abandon all of the "whips" which have been 
handed down the ladder of tradition. Oral and written 
periodic tests are still used to advantage by most teachers. 



160 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

They lead the pupil to see that he must " make good," that 
he must retain enough of the facts in his course to satisfy the 
examiner. He takes notes, reviews, and compares his 
possessions with those of his classmates to insure his being 
able to meet the minimum requirements of his teacher. 
This caution on his part will not give him a greater relish 
for the subject-matter, but it will stimulate a more accurate 
mastery of the facts considered. These facts in turn may 
increase his interest in the subject itself. 

It may be necessary in an extreme situation to keep a 
daily record in class of the work done by each member of 
the class, though it is indeed a rare situation which warrants 
it. Such a practice is a reflection upon the teaching ability 
of him who resorts to it. It is distressing, indeed, to see a 
teacher recording what he thinks the various recitations 
are worth. It is a strange drama being enacted. It would 
seem tragic were it not for its comical aspect. It may 
be necessary for a relatively good teacher to resort to 
it, but it should be of short duration, and should be the 
occasion of professional embarrassment. 

Formal Reports to Parents. — Reports to parents may act 
either as a positive or a negative incentive. Occasionally 
pupils are stimulated by the appreciation they expect to 
receive when the report reaches home. Unfortunately, 
however, report cards more frequently serve as whips than 
pulls, and consequently are negative incentives. They have 
further administrative functions which need not be con- 
sidered here, and which may justify a judicious use of 
them. 

Definite Schoolroom Requirements. — Responsibility sub- 
jectively considered is an aspect of character in which 
habit plays a large part. For this reason school manage- 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 161 

ment is no small agency in establishing responsibility. An 
insistence upon punctuality alone often stimulates initiative, 
requires premeditated and systematic planning, and often 
secures a readjustment of old ways of living by a willed 
program to overcome physical inertia and social and 
economic irregularity. 

Working in unison with the social unit of which one is 
a part, even if it is a response to external requirement at 
first, ultimately has a wholesome effect. It awakens and 
enlivens a sense of social responsibility. 

Positive and not negative means should be employed first 
to remove tardiness as an obstacle to class unity. An in- 
tellectual appeal to cease being tardy may result from 
a careful estimate of the waste time forced upon the 
school by the distractions occasioned by a late comer. 
In a school of forty it is reasonable to suppose that the lost 
time occasioned by a late comer is on the average two 
minutes per pupil, or an equivalent of eighty minutes for 
one pupil. Since this is one- third of a pupil's daily 
study time it is clear that six tardies per day represent an 
actual educational loss equivalent to the absence of one 
pupil from school all of the time. 

An appeal to class pride secures wonderful results. A 
little rivalry with other grades and other schools gives a 
wholesome impetus to punctuality. It immediately puts 
the tardy pupil in a position of offending the class and 
subjects him to the condemnation of his associates. Few 
pupils are so non-social as to deliberately ignore this social 
pressure of the class. 

A high school which was notorious for its poor habits 
of attendance was practically cured of this ailment in a 
brief time by a class-cooperative scheme. A general 



162 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

plan was inaugurated whereby a wholesome rivalry be- 
tween classes was sanctioned. A number of points were 
given for success in the. various forms of gymnastics, music, 
public speaking, general scholarship, and habits of attend- 
ance, including punctuality and full time attendance. 
The last two items were given more points than the others 
for obvious reasons. The successful class was awarded a 
prize by the school, which in turn it gave to the school 
with its insignia upon it. 

The classes were not slow to see the effect of scholar- 
ship and punctuality upon the final outcome. The classes 
of poorest scholarship and most likely to be irregular at 
school were first to recognize that punctuality was more 
vital to them than to those of greater scholastic tendencies. 
Class meetings were held and the transgressors in the several 
classes were told in no uncertain terms by their associates 
that they must mend their ways in order to remain in good 
standing with the class organization and with the in- 
dividual members composing it. The results were 
splendid. 

There are some weaknesses in a motivating device of 
this sort. It is meritorious in that it increases and in- 
tensifies the group consciousness and thereby tends to 
subordinate the self to the welfare of the group. Such 
consciousness and subordination are the essence of the 
responsibility needed in a democracy. 

Pupil Organizations. — From the standpoint of leader- 
ship nothing the school can do is more helpful than well- 
supervised pupil organizations. They impose a degree of 
self-direction unobtainable in the classroom. Opportunities 
are legion in this connection. A little encouragement, 
proper supervision, and adequate safeguards for the pre- 



MEANS OF GENERATING RESPONSIBILITY 163 

scribed work of the school are all that is necessary to make 
it a success. 

In a large high school there should be enough of this 
sort of activity to justify a supervisor who will give all of 
his time to directing these extra schoolroom enterprises. 
Certainly they are no less educative and far-reaching in 
their influence than other work now receiving the entire 
time of special supervisors. 

Standardized Tests. — Standardized tests have not a 
little bearing upon individual responsibility. A conscious- 
ness on the part of the pupil, that his relative standing does 
not depend upon the biased judgment and the prejudices 
of his teacher, but upon an impartial comparison of his 
success with the average success of a large and widely 
distributed group, leads him to begin the process of self- 
evaluation, which usually results in a better perspective, 
a stronger reliance upon his own resources, and a more 
intelligent direction of his own schoolroom activities. 



CHAPTER X 
VALUE AND CHARACTER OF EFFECTIVE STIMULI 

The Use of Stimuli. — The only contact which the 
embryonic consciousness of the child has with the outside 
world is through a complicated nerve system which termi- 
nates in the special senses. The character and variety of 
contacts which these special senses have with the en- 
vironment determine in a large measure the development 
of this embryonic consciousness. 

In the early stages of the child's development there is 
no attempt on the part of his elders to systematize the 
stimuli which he receives. The contacts which he has are 
incidental and unorganized. Like the butterfly, he attends 
to one stimulus after another, each in turn producing in- 
tense but momentary rapture. He is yet unfamiliar with 
organized games. 

After a little while the development of the play instinct 
tends to stabilize and systematize his conduct. He now 
finds pleasure in doing a thing many times. The little 
games which he plays to satisfy these instincts require 
repeated attention to the things of his experience. This 
repetition of sensation enriches his percepts and lays the 
foundation of the fundamental habits. 

Again, the environment of the home, to which the child 
is exposed, provides the first systematized stimuli of his 

164 



VALUE AND CHARACTER OF EFFECTIVE STIMULI 165 

experience. Unconscious of any definite results, he sub- 
mits to regular times for eating, sleeping, and exercising. 
He observes the character and use of the various articles 
of the house and is gradually trained to adapt himself to 
the conventions of the home. These early home contacts 
begin to organize his life in harmony with his later needs. 

Many of the stimuli of the home are consciously directed 
by those in charge, in an attempt to determine the life 
attitude of the child. In some homes these stimuli are 
consistently and systematically directed with excellent 
results. Imitation, however, plays the largest role in the 
home management of children. It is unfortunate that 
legitimate aims of home management and the most effective 
means of attaining them have not been agreed upon and 
popularized. Educational leaders, like physicians, seem 
possessed with the notion that "home remedies" are 
dangerous. Home remedies will and should be used. 
There should be a common agreement as to which remedies 
are most effective. 

Not until the child reaches the school is there a con- 
sistent conscious effort to determine his contacts in the 
light of the demands society will make upon him. Here 
certain specific aims are established and materials se- 
lected. Through bringing him in contact with these ma- 
terials it is expected that he will realize the aims which are 
held up for him. An important function of teaching is to 
bring the child into a wholesome understanding with these 
materials. This means adjustment, adaptation, amplifica- 
tion. It means an employment of those teaching devices 
which are known to be effective. One chief difficulty in- 
volved in preparation for teaching is a mastery of the 
stimuli to be used. 



166 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Classes of Stimuli 

Concrete Stimuli. — Before entering school the child 
has had a relatively rich experience with concrete stimuli. 
He has had first-hand experience with the animals, plants, 
minerals, and the inorganic matter of his environment. 
A fairly good stock of concepts has resulted from these 
sense experiences. It is part of the business of the school 
to enrich these concepts, to form new ones, to develop 
fundamental generalizations, and to give the pupil a 
mastery of their appropriate symbols. 

Unfortunately, the teacher too often assumes that the 
child's out-of-school contacts have been ample. Conse- 
quently he proceeds to give much of the time to teaching 
symbols and to enriching the content of these symbols. 

First-Hand Experiences. — Many of the child's concrete 
experiences have been wholly inadequate, due to lack of 
proper incentives. Many a boy reared on a farm and in 
the midst of wild flowers and insects knows little or nothing 
of them until his first real acquaintance with them in the 
classroom, where properly set problems give specific 
direction to his energies. What and how much one sees 
depends in a large measure upon what his problems are. 
So far as the solutions of out-of-school problems have 
determined the child's sensations, it is reasonable to sup- 
pose that his sense experiences have been adequate. 

It is the business of the school to inquire into these out- 
of-school experiences. When defective it should set up 
problems, the solutions of which require a careful examina- 
tion of concrete materials. 

Important as concrete objects are, they usually fail to 
arouse a sufficient response on the part of children to in- 



VALUE AND CHARACTER OF EFFECTIVE STIMULI 167 

sure vivid sensations, until they become a necessary means 
of solving the pupil's problems. Materials brought into 
the classroom for incidental observation, unless they are of 
an unusual nature, will result in relatively poor attention 
owing to the lack of a specific motive. 

Concrete objects to be of most worth should be used as 
a means to an end and not as an end in themselves. When 
examined to justify some opinion or to secure some desired 
information the impression of them is much more com- 
plete and lasting. When thus employed, supplementary 
materials in nature study, biology, the physical sciences, 
mathematics, geography, and history are wonderfully effec- 
tive in the learning process. 

Illustrative Materials 

Maps. — Second to real materials are those of the 
illustrative type such as maps, diagrams, graphic illus- 
trations, and models. Perhaps the map is the most 
significant and widely used of these. As a rule it is not 
poverty so much as low ideals that prevent a free use of 
maps. A recent visitor to a country school in Illinois 
approached a map case attached to the wall. Surrounded 
by several children he proceeded to pry the case open. 
Finally he drew down a long imprisoned map, which brought 
the following exclamation from one of the pupils: "Oh, 
that's what's in that thing !" 

It is this indifference to the value of maps in the teach- 
ing process that makes the situation most discouraging. 
Young teachers as a rule neglect to use maps freely. Even 
when the map is used, lack of comparison and detailed 
observation rob this device of much of its merit. 

Proper Use of Maps. — To be used freely maps must be 



168 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

in good workable cases and placed where the light is good. 
When the map is to be used in the recitation it is usually 
best to pull it down before beginning the recitation, though 
it may not be needed until the latter part of the recitation. 
Too frequently pupils refer to a map in an incidental way. 
Occasionally a child will condescend to approach it and 
with a quick wave of the hand point in an indefinite way 
toward the place under consideration. It is rare indeed 
that one sees a grade pupil approach a map and with the 
hand or pointer carefully trace the boundary of a territory, 
the course of a river, or the route of an army. It is such 
a detailed use of a map as this that really counts, both for 
the one who does it and for those who observe. 

Diagrams and Illustrations. — Nothing reveals a teacher's 
mastery over the teaching process better than an intelli- 
gent use of diagrams and illustrations. When a situation is 
somewhat obscure, a graphic or verbal illustration will 
touch the obscure spot or center of confusion. When 
political parties want to impress the select voter with their 
merit, they call upon noted cartoonists to portray it in 
graphic form. They send into the field those speakers who 
have the ability to portray the party's merits with simple, 
homely illustrations. Lincoln was a "past master" at 
illustration ; and Mr. Bryan, who doubtless has addressed 
more people than any other American statesman, uses 
concrete illustrations most effectively. 

Explanation tires and irritates one who vaguely under- 
stands a situation or a principle. An illustration, on the 
other hand, has the opposite effect. Its individual aspect 
interests, while its concreteness offers opportunity for further 
comparison and richer generalization. Yet how frequently 
does one see a teacher, worked up to the "third degree" of 



VALUE AND CHARACTER OF EFFECTIVE STIMULI 169 

intensity, " chattering like a magpie" in her attempt to 
explain a situation which is unexplainable because the words 
employed have no content to the confused pupils. 

The Use of Models. — There has been not a little dis- 
cussion of the relative use of the model as a teaching 
agency. Strange to say the end of the discussion is not 
yet. Some maintain strongly that type compositions will 
aid materially in improving the compositions of children 
since, as they argue, language usage is largely a matter 
of imitation. Others as strongly maintain that the model 
is too far removed from the pupil's experiences and conse- 
quently fails to make a strong appeal to him. Those of 
the latter school prefer to compare the compositions of the 
pupils and thus arrive at those qualities of composition 
which express thoughts and feelings most effectively. 

Doubtless both methods are valuable. It depends en- 
tirely upon their order. After fundamental principles of 
discourse have been derived by means of comparison, 
it will add much to the inspiration and confidence of the 
children to find that a writer of note has recognized the 
same principles and used the same form they have found 
effective in conveying their thoughts. 

Models in other subjects are scarcely more appreciated 
than in composition. There is a strong demand for 
initiative and originality. A student of cookery is en- 
couraged to experiment with materials until she can 
make a recipe for herself. Each girl in a sewing class is 
taught to design her own dress. Similar methods are 
employed in manual training. The whole trend of teach- 
ing is to stimulate originality in both thought and ex- 
pression. This freedom of the pupil should be safeguarded 
by properly establishing the fundamental habits of life. 



170 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Again without loss in individual initiative, individual 
research may well be evaluated in terms of a generally 
accepted model. The results of experimentation in the 
cooking class may well be subjected to a sharp comparison 
with those secured from the use of a standard recipe. 
The same will hold true for the products of the sewing room 
and those of manual training. 

But more especially, models are of real value in the 
primary grades. A model room from the standpoint of 
attractiveness, model English and model writing on the 
part of the teacher, are valuable innovations. In fact school 
conditions in this early period, only when most wholesome, 
are worthy of imitation. They should be models in the 
finest sense of the word. 

Formal Methods or Presenting Subject-Matter 

The child early expresses himself through symbols. At 
first spoken, then printed and written language are em- 
ployed to convey ideas to and from him. One large phase 
of school work has to do with the teaching and interpretation 
of symbols. Another large and significant phase involves 
the teaching of new knowledge through the direct in- 
strumentality of language itself. Indeed, most school 
work deals with knowledge which has been acquired through 
the instrumentality of language. On the basis of the use of 
language as a teaching agency, methods of teaching are 
divided into classes. 

The Textbook Methods. — The direct use of the textbook 
in getting knowledge and inspiration is common. There 
is no indication at present that this practice is to be aban- 
doned even partially in the near future. Textbooks have 



VALUE AND CHARACTER OF EFFECTIVE STIMULI 171 

so improved, both as to information and method, that they 
are indispensable to the modern school. 

McMurry 1 analyzes textbook usage into three methods. 
The first requires the pupil to learn the language of the 
author verbatim, as if it had some magic power. Much of 
the Sunday-school work has consisted of this method of 
teaching. Teaching a verbal mastery of definitions in 
grammar, arithmetic, geography, composition ; a similar 
mastery of propositions and corollaries in geometry ; the 
memorizing of poems and prose — are examples of this 
form of method. 

This method is often both obstructive and destructive. 
It degenerates into formalism, and often results in the 
short-circuiting of words. It reduces the teacher's re- 
sponsibility to the minimum. It requires little forethought 
on the part of the teacher to employ the verbal method of 
knowledge-getting. He need not concern himself with 
relative values or with the psychic processes involved in 
getting the knowledge contemplated. An insistent de- 
mand for results and enough influence and strength to see 
that this demand is obeyed seem to be the essential pre- 
requisites to this sort of teaching. 

There is no economic, ethical, or aesthetic reason for 
the verbal mastery of subject-matter until it is relatively 
well understood by the child. There is enough worthy 
subject-matter that the child can understand and appreciate 
without it being necessary to clog his " psychic machinery" 
with " non-absorbent " materials. 

The second method involves that usage of the textbook 
in which the thoughts of the author are interpreted in terms 
of the pupil's own experiences. This is the most common 

1 Method of Recitation, McMurry. The Macmillan Co. 



172 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

method of the elementary school. History, geography, 
and reading especially lend themselves to this method. 
It is a strong method in knowledge getting and in the 
development of language. It is weak in that it does not 
stimulate sufficient initiative or lend itself to a sufficient 
development of sound judgment. 

For mature students who have already raised vital prob- 
lems for themselves to solve and who are comparing the 
judgments of textbook writers as a means of solving 
these problems, this method is effective. Whenever the 
teacher can keep vital problems before his children, which 
require an examination of the materials in the text 
for their solution, this method is an effective teaching 
agency. 

The third method is concerned with that usage of the 
textbook in which the thoughts of the author are used as a 
basis of free discussion, with no attempt on the part of the 
teacher to accept the author's conclusion as final or even 
vital. This higher criticism leads to independence of 
thought and to a comparative study of many viewpoints. 
No work that the school does is more stimulating than 
this. Here again definite aims are necessary to give 
balance and sane direction to the work at hand. Un- 
less this method-form is surrounded with adequate safe- 
guards, it may result in mere quibbling, endless discussion, 
and deceptive generalizations. Textbooks, like other 
instrumentalities of life, are valuable only in so far as they 
are rightly used. When properly used they are of inesti- 
mable value in the teaching process. When wrongly used 
they develop mental inertia and thwart the realization of 
social aims. 

The Lecture Method. — Many believe that the serious 



VALUE AND CHARACTER OF EFFECTIVE STIMULI 173 

conditions which have resulted from an improper use of 
the textbook method may readily be prevented by the use 
of the lecture method. The universities have adopted 
this method largely, and graduates from these institutions 
who are engaged in teaching have been inclined to employ 
it. 

The arguments in its favor are many. The responsi- 
bility it imposes upon the teacher, the inspiration of the 
teacher's personality, the close sequence of thought, the 
special adaptation of the subject-matter to the needs of 
the particular group at hand, are some of the arguments 
of its advocates. 

Its relative merit depends upon the conscious needs of 
the pupils. If those who are lectured to have raised im- 
portant problems for themselves to solve, if the lecture 
bears directly upon these problems, and if the lecture is 
adapted to the interpretative ability of the pupils, there 
can be no doubt of its effectiveness. Under these condi- 
tions it is the most economical method available. Graduate 
courses in the universities, courses for teachers in service, 
in fact for all teachers with definite problems to solve, may 
be given best by the lecture method. When these con- 
ditions do not exist, lecturing is by no means the most 
effective method of presenting subject-matter. 

The Development Method. — Efficiency in teaching has 
been impaired in places by a literal application of the de- 
velopment method. A superficial study of child psychology 
has caused an undue appreciation on the part of teachers 
of the initiative and self-direction of children. Many 
disciples of the development method have felt that it is 
the child's inalienable right to discover all truth by the 
process of "intensive thinking." They have proceeded, 



174 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

therefore, by this method to "draw out" or develop the 
latent abilities of the child. 

By means of questions, mainly, the child's experiences 
are recalled and related to the new situation at hand. Two 
harmful practices have developed from the overzealous- 
ness of the advocates of this method. Frequently they 
try to develop what the child already knows, or what is 
not worth the time and trouble expended, or what cannot 
be developed. Again they try to /'pump water from a 
dry well." This often occurs in connection with the 
acquisition of definitions and the explanations of principles. 
Usually the child needs more experiences that are rich in 
the fundamentals involved, as well as an awakening of those 
he already possesses, instead of principles and definitions. 

As a supplementary agency, a cautious use of the de- 
veloping method results in all that is claimed for it even 
by its most enthusiastic advocates. Its successful em- 
ployment requires an artful use of the question and a keen 
sense of relative values. 

Classroom Questions 

On the basis of form, questions fall naturally into four 
classes : the direct question — Are you old enough to 
vote? the indirect question — Why does water run up 
hill in a vacuum ? the alternative question — Was Ohio 
the first or second state formed from the Northwest Terri- 
tory ? and the elliptical question — 3X6 = ? The 

fourth president of the United States was ? 

The Direct Question. — It is evident that the relative 
teaching value of these questions depends upon the use 
that is made of them. The direct question so frequently 
used to provoke thought is a failure in this connection. 



VALUE AND CHARACTER OF EFFECTIVE STIMULI 175 

A pupil has a fifty per cent chance of giving the desired 
answer without doing any thinking whatever. When the 
question is supplemented, as it frequently is, by a sug- 
gestive intonation, a modification of the voice, and a 
significant look of the eye, the chance of giving the desired 
response has reached almost to a point of certainty. Fre- 
quently pupils develop a rare keenness at guessing the 
answer the teacher wishes given. This form of the ques- 
tion is effective when information alone is desired. It 
does not provoke thought. 
. The Indirect Question. — This question is the most 
common and most effective one employed by teachers. 
It reduces guessing to a minimum and thus paves the way 
for responsible thinking. In like manner it imposes upon 
the teacher the necessity of knowing the underlying prin- 
ciples. One cannot consistently ask effective indirect 
questions without a thorough understanding of the intrinsic 
function of the parts of the subject-matter. The first 
prerequisite to effective indirect questions is a thorough 
understanding of the main purpose and the logical struc- 
ture of such subject-matter. 

The Alternative Question. — There is not a large use of 
this question in the teaching process. Neither is it an 
effective tool. It stimulates guessing and but seldom pro- 
vokes thought. The situation is rare indeed which de- 
mands its use. 

The Elliptical Question. — The elliptical question has 
a real place in teaching. It is especially valuable in drill 
work in arithmetic and for similar purposes elsewhere. 
Children's books frequently contain many elliptical ques- 
tions. They appeal to the child's sense of curiosity. They 
also indicate briefly what is to be found. 



176 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

In the main, the indirect question should be used in 
assignments, examinations, and in the daily recitation. 
An organization of subject-matter is a prerequisite to an 
effective use of it. Ability to organize is fundamental to 
thought-provoking questions. 



CHAPTER XI 
THE VALUE OF COMPARISON 

Comparison is so vital, and its inadequate use so serious 
that there can be little danger of overstressing the im- 
portance which McMurry and others have given to it, by 
a further and somewhat detailed treatment of its natural, 
fundamental, and practical aspects. -^ 

Comparison a Natural Process. — Comparison is a 
natural process, since it is a vital factor of both work and 
play. The play activities of children and adults are con- 
stantly stimulated by comparison. The competitive ele- 
ment, which depends upon comparison, prevails in running 
games, marbles, sling, quoits, tenpins, tennis, ball, golf, 
and racing of every sort. The sharper the comparison 
the more exhilarating the game. Few persons indeed en- 
joy playing with an unworthy competitor, and seldom does 
an audience enjoy a one-sided contest. Eliminate the 
element of comparison and the game ceases to be. 

In like manner the impetus to work results from the 
satisfaction which springs from a comparison of a past or 
present real with an ideal, partially or wholly within the 
scope of realization. The impetus to mow the lawn, other 
than that secured by external pressure, springs from the 
satisfaction experienced when the well-mowed lawn is 
held in imagination alongside the image of the existing 
lawn and evaluated in terms of social approval, personal 

177 



178 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

convenience, or enjoyment. One paints the house, sods 
the yard, repairs the fence, curries the horse, and "rubs 
down" the automobile, because of the satisfaction that 
results from a comparison of the real with the ideal. 

Fundamental to Vigorous Thought. — Not only is com- 
parison natural as revealed in an analysis of both work 
and play, but it is fundamental to vigorous thought pro- 
cesses. The raising of problems is as fundamental to good 
teaching as the solving of them. We appreciate most those 
authors who throw bombs along our mental pathways — 
who make our satisfied and comfortable opinions un- 
satisfied and uncomfortable. We appreciate most those 
books and articles which undermine our prejudices, clarify 
our superstitions, and broaden our perspective. 

In like manner we revere those teachers who provoke 
new views, stimulate new attitudes, lead to new conquests, 
and arouse in us a confidence which we once thought our- 
selves incapable of. Comparison is an effective means of 
raising problems. No more stimulating approach to a new 
situation can be made than that of comparing it with an 
old one with which it has some elements in common. 

The biologist recognizes this truth. He approaches in 
turn increasingly complex specimens by comparing them 
with the simpler evolutionary forms. Through similarity 
and contrast a structural relation between the great groups 
of animal and plant life is established. It is the edu- 
cational value of this thought-provoking approach which 
causes some biologists to question the merit of a general 
science course which apparently is of a less coherent 
character. 

A thought-provoking approach to a study of both South 
Australia and Argentina may be made by raising the 



THE VALUE OF COMPARISON 179 

following comparative problem : Why are corn raising in 
Illinois, sheep raising in South Australia, and cattle raising 
in Argentina respectively the predominating agricultural 
industries of these states, though all are in a similar lati- 
tude? The solution of this problem involves a knowledge 
of the comparative amount and distribution of the rainfall 
and an understanding of the prevailing winds, surface fea- 
tures of each country, remoteness from large bodies of 
water, internal improvements, etc. 

Comparison of Subject-Matter Provokes Thought 

. Method in History. — The materials of history lend 
themselves to effective comparison. No better illus- 
tration of the efficacy of comparison in provoking historical 
mindedness can be given than Fiske's Critical Period in 
American History. This account is brilliant and effective, 
because of its masterful comparisons. The motives and 
policies of statesmen, the character of colonial govern- 
ments, their chartered holdings, nationalities, industries, 
tariff laws, and a multitude of other factors are paraded 
before the reader and compared for purposes of accounting 
for the political structure which sprang up in the latter half 
of the eighteenth century from the varied and complex 
situation which immediately preceded it. Other historians 
may have examined more source materials, and contented 
themselves with less philosophizing, but all must respect 
John Fiske for his splendid style, which is characterized by 
its frequent and effective comparisons. 

Method in Nature-Study. — Method in nature-study, 
because of the newness of the subject, and because of its 
kinship to the natural sciences, is more comparative than 
that of many of the older subjects. Our annual corn 



180 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

shows, seed tests, and vegetable and flower exhibits are 
comparisons of merit. Never, however, until comparison 
in nature-study and in the sciences includes fundamental 
processes and their results can we hope that children will 
become possessed with a scientific bent for nature. 

A course of study in elementary science, it matters not 
how adequate it may be, will accomplish little until teachers 
become saturated with scientific ideals and possessed with 
scientific knowledge. The situation can be decidedly im- 
proved under present conditions by introducing depart- 
mental work in the upper grades, and by substituting 
vertical or departmental supervision for the transverse or 
general supervision now in vogue. 

Method in Teaching English. — It has been declared 
recently in some quarters that the waste in the processes 
employed in the teaching of English is more marked than 
in the teaching of any other subject. When we consider 
the results of four years of high-school English in specific 
courses, not to speak of the correlated English through the 
elementary and secondary schools, we are inclined to be- 
lieve that the declaration is true, especially so far as it 
applies to the teaching of composition. 

The faithful marking of relative errors and the casual 
discussion of these when the papers are returned, is too 
indefinite and void of emotion to produce a decided im- 
provement. Fewer compositions and more effective com- 
parisons will improve the situation. Rotary mimeographs 
and projectoscopes to afford proper comparison are as 
fundamental to the effective teaching of composition and 
rhetoric as microscopes and hand lens are to the teaching 
of biology. The comparative method afforded by such an 
equipment is as superior to the common method of dis- 



THE VALUE OF COMPARISON l8l 

cussing isolated compositions after they have been read 
to the class as the automobile is superior to the family 
carriage. 

Comparison Increases Literary Appreciation. — Literary 
appreciation is no less enhanced by comparison. The 
excessive use of the moral that was tacked on to the old 
fables has tended to establish a strong prejudice against 
emphasizing analysis in the study of English. We hear 
sensitive natures proclaiming : ' ' Analysis savors of vulgarity, 
and prevents the deeper and more universal qualities of 
the soul from reverberating to the gentler and subtler 
stimuli which radiate from truly great pieces of literature." 

If the intellect needs to be throttled in order that litera- 
ture and painting be most highly appreciated, doubtless 
we are to conclude that the peaceful and contented ap- 
pearance of dumb animals is due to their high apprecia- 
tion of the poetry of nature. 

It is reasonably sure that but few of us need be seriously 
alarmed over the excessive discoveries of our intellects. 
The intellect is the greatest heritage of the animal world, 
and there is no serious reason why one should not use all 
he possesses in the study of art and religion, as well as in 
the study of industry and science. Comparison is a 
positive indication of intellectual activity. It stimulates 
emotional activity as well. 

A striking similarity of function is laid bare in the com- 
parison of Longfellow's Excelsior, and Jordan's Life of 
the Salmon. Both structures reveal conduct that is con- 
trolled by an inherent and impelling force. Jordan re- 
veals the instinctive force which impels self-preservation 
and the provision for offspring in lower animals. Long- 
fellow pictures the impelling force which drives superior 



182 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

human beings on to marked achievement. There is a 
wonderful similarity in the function of these seemingly 
widely different structures. A comparison of the two se- 
lections enriches our appreciation of the splendid adapta- 
tion of the structures to the all-pervading idea of each. 

A comparison of Tennyson's confession of faith expressed 
in his Crossing the Bar, with Browning's confession of faith 
set forth in his Epilogue to Asolando, reveals in a signifi- 
cant way the temperaments and the philosophies of these 
master artists. Tennyson expresses his faith thus : 

"Twilight and evening bell 
And after that the dark ; 
And may there be no sadness of farewell. 
When I embark. 
For tho' from out our bourne of 

Time and Place 
The flood may bear me far, 
I hope to see my Pilot face to face 
When I have crost the bar." 

Contrast this quiet and peaceful faith of Tennyson, ac- 
cepted of his fathers, with Browning's : 

"No, at the noonday in the bustle of man's work time 
Greet the unseen with a cheer. 
Bid him forward, breast and back as either should be, 
Strive and thrive ! Cry speed, — fight on, forever 
There as here." 

The faith of each is determined by his experience. That 
of Tennyson is gentle and submissive. That of Browning 
is vigorous and springs from life itself. Tennyson " wraps 
the draperies of his couch about himself and lies down to 
pleasant dreams," Browning girds his loins for greater 
conquests, 



THE VALUE OF COMPARISON 183 

Keats 's The Human Seasons becomes more and more 
interesting when compared with Shakespere's Seven 
Ages of Man. Shakespere, who wrote first, speaks his 
notion of the evolution of the individual through the mouth 
of Jaques thus : 

"All the world's a stage, 
And all the men and women merely players : 
They have their exits and their entrances ; 
And one man in his time plays many parts, 
His acts being seven ages. At first, the infant, 
Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms. 
And then, the whining schoolboy, with his satchel, 
And shining morning face, creeping like a snail 
Unwillingly to school. And then, the lover, 
Sighing like furnace, with a woeful ballad 
Made to his mistress's eyebrow. Then, a soldier, 
Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard, 
Jealous in honour, sudden and quick in quarrel, 
Seeking the bubble reputation 

Even in the cannon's mouth. And then the justice, 
In fair round belly with good capon lined, 
With eyes severe and beard of formal cut, 
Full of wise saws and modern instances ; 
And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts 
Into the lean and slippered pantaloon, 
With spectacles on nose and pouch on side ; 
His youthful hose well saved, a world too wide 
For his shrunk shank ; and his big manly voice, 
Turning again toward childish treble, pipes 
And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all, 
That ends this strange eventful history, 
Is second childishness and mere oblivion, 
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything." 

Keats, much less analytically and much more beautifully, 
expresses himself thus : 



184 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

" [Man] has the lusty spring, when fancy clear 
Takes in all beauty with an easy span : 
He has his summer, when luxuriously 
Spring's honey'd cud of youth he loves 
To ruminate, and by such dreaming high 
Is nearest unto heaven : quiet coves 
His soul has in its autumn, when his wings 
He furleth close ; contented so to look 
On mists in idleness — to let fair things 
Pass by unheeded as a threshold brook : 
He has his winter, too, of pale misfeature, 
Or else he would forego his mortal nature : " 

Keats dwells upon subjective divisions while Shakespere 
portrays in the main the physical complement of these. 
The analysis is not quite so sharp in The Human Seasons as 
in The Seven Ages of Man. On the other hand, the more 
subtle and fundamental emotions are portrayed in The 
Human Seasons. 

No one is so foolish as to maintain that it is the function 
of all literature to reveal fundamental truths. However, 
it is inconceivable that one should create a " literary gem" 
without forethought and purpose. These purposes may 
vary, from those which determine a series of word pictures, 
harmonic and rhythmical sounds, various emotional con- 
ditions, to those which deal with great fundamental prin- 
ciples. There is no way of knowing what was intended 
except through an analysis of the structures created. There 
is no better way of rinding the relative effectiveness of 
structure to reveal its function, than that of comparing it 
with those intended to reveal a similar function. 

Comparison Clarifies Thought. — Not only does com- 
parison provoke thought, but it clarities it as well. One's 
vague notion of the social and economic conditions of 



THE VALUE OF COMPARISON 185 

colonial days may be clarified by a comparison of the funda- 
mental phases of that life with the fundamental phases of 
his own. A comparison of the houses, furniture, methods 
of lighting, heating, cooking, travel, transportation, pas- 
time, forms of etiquette, and the conventions of those 
times, with those of to-day, will remove many of the absurd 
notions we may have of colonial life. 

One will understand and appreciate human purpose and 
effort, the products of toil, the adequacy of knowledge and 
training, the sanity of styles and fashions, the soundness 
of judgments, and the worthiness of motives, by comparing 
them with those which have stood the test of time. Vague- 
ness and uncertainty are clarified and made certain not by 
complicated and extended explanation, but by sane and 
adequate comparisons. 

Comparison Stimulates the Memory. — Comparison not 
only provokes and clarifies thought, but it stimulates and 
strengthens the memory. Jones 1 and Pearson 2 have 
demonstrated that correct forms in spelling are held more 
tenaciously when they are taught by comparative methods 
than when presented in isolation. 

We can retain with greater certainty the normal yield 
of wheat of the great wheat-producing countries of the 
world by a comparative study of their production. Through 
comparison we more easily remember that Russia and the 
United States each before the World War produced in 
round numbers 700,000,000 bushels of wheat annually, 
that India produced one-half as much, while France and 
Austria-Hungary before the war each yielded slightly 
more than one- third that amount. 

1 In an unpublished report by W. Franklin Jones. 

2 Henry C. Pearson, Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol. 2, 241. 



186 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Most eighth-grade children have little control of the 
facts relative to the sugar products of the world, since the 
yield of each country was learned in isolation. When, 
however, it is held up in comparison, retention is easy. 
A comparison of India's and Cuba's production of 2,000,- 
000 tons of cane sugar each, with that of the United 
States, which is three-fifths of that amount, gives an ac- 
cessible latch-string to one's memory. A comparison of 
the beet sugar yield before the World War ranks Germany 
first, Russia second, Austria-Hungary third, France fourth, 
the United States fifth, and Belgium sixth. This com- 
parison at this time is especially pertinent, since it gives one 
an insight into the prices which now prevail as well as into 
the relative supply of this food product in the other coun- 
tries. All facts are vivified, and their relative values 
emphasized, by comparison. 

Illustrations without number can be drawn from the 
great fields of knowledge to substantiate the efficacy of 
comparison in the teaching process. Unfortunately cer- 
tain traditional schoolroom practices prevent its free and 
most effective use. 

Modern Textbooks Employ Comparison. — Textbooks are 
just beginning to use comparison effectively. Our better 
geographers are putting comparative diagrams and maps 
in the back of their books. Some historians are inserting 
here and there a set of comparative maps in their newer 
works. 

Objective Standards Force Comparison. — No single feature 
in school administration has been quite so far-reaching 
in its results as that of employing objective standards in 
the determination of teaching efficiency. The economic 
maxim, "put the oil where the squeak is," is being applied 



THE VALUE OF COMPARISON 187 

to the teaching process with splendid results. It must be 
borne in mind that the determination of standards and their 
application both depend upon a sane use of comparison. 

The demand for more efficiency in the teaching process 
is focusing our attention upon the relative value of teach- 
ing methods. It is revealing the fact that we make too 
little use of what we know, in grasping the unfamiliar. It 
is reasonably certain that teaching efficiency may be en- 
hanced by giving greater care to the organization of facts 
already possessed and by comparing these facts with the 
new materials at hand. 



CHAPTER XII 
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO READING 

Industries Employ Expert Knowledge. — The scientific 
advance in the half-century just past has materially in- 
fluenced every phase of organized effort. The field of 
industry, especially, has made much of this expert knowl- 
edge. Private and public enterprises have increased their 
output and improved the quality of the finished product. 
By means of improved methods wastes have been prac- 
tically eliminated and energy has been conserved. 

The meat-packing industry alone exemplifies the marvel- 
ous influence that conservation has had in the industries. 
Under the new regime materials that were once wasted are 
now converted into useful products. The dirt on the skin 
of the steer is saved for fertilizer; his hair is made into 
brushes, cushions, mattresses, and shoddy; his hoofs, 
horns, and the marrow of his bones yield an abundance of 
glue; his hide is transformed into leather; his bones are 
converted into handles for brushes and knives, into hair- 
pins, combs, buttons, and boneblack ; his fat yields 
oleomargarine, soaps, and extracts ; while his life blood is 
carried away to fertilize soils, improve paper, and purify 
sugar. Moreover, through the touch of science this great 
industry has materially added to our food and has im- 
proved its quality as well. 



APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO READING 189 

Schools Must Employ Expert Knowledge. — If applied 
science can thus enhance the value of the steer it should, 
when applied to the child, produce results of vastly greater 
interest. We cannot refrain from suggesting that it is 
extremely embarrassing to the schoolmaster that he needs 
to draw his inspiration for scientific teaching from the 
butchers of hogs and cattle. If it pays to conserve energy 
through the application of scientific principles in the 
preparation of foodstuffs, certainly it pays infinitely more 
to apply scientific principles in preparing the child to meet 
his social obligations and to enjoy his social heritage. Just 
to the degree that the various phases of the teaching process 
are understood and this knowledge is efficiently applied, 
just to that extent are we applying scientific principles to 
our teaching. 

Every effort for the serious consideration of the worth- 
whileness of subject-matter and method is indicative of 
economy in education. With a better understanding of 
Social problems on the one hand, and of psychological 
principles on the other, we are better enabled to economize 
in the selection of materials and method. Materials are 
judged in terms of social standards, and processes are 
sanctioned to the degree that they ultimately result in a 
maximum efficiency. 

Some Basic Principles 

Interest is Valuable. — The doctrine of interest has been 
long associated with the process of learning. Continued 
attention without any immediate or mediated interest is, 
from a pedagogical point of view, an absurdity. One 
persistently attends to that which has a paramount interest 
for him and ignores that which makes no appeal. If we 



I go THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

accept either Ostermann's view that "Interest is con- 
sciousness of value," x or Baldwin's view that it is "The 
impulse to attend," 2 we have cognizance of the fact that 
it is an inherent force that at least registers the degree of 
one's attention, and consequently indicates or determines 
the degree of mental effort expended. 

Wasted Energy is Expensive. — It is a lamentable fact 
that we have never considered seriously enough the quan- 
titative side of effort. Teachers who pride themselves on 
the punctuality of their children and on the relatively few 
absences recorded, often permit recitation after recitation 
in which there is more than 75 per cent of waste energy. 
Growth comes from interested application. The more in- 
tense the application the greater the growth. 

To attend to a stimulus intently, so intently indeed 
that other stimuli are isolated, insures a high degree of 
association and a maximum degree of learning for the child 
so engaged. It is the function of method to create this 
high degree of attention through the stimulation of strong 
motives. 

In the last analysis our problem, applied to primary 
method, is to lay bare its motivating factors. At the very 
outset it is apparent that an adequate discussion of this 
problem includes consideration of both its subjective and 
objective aspects. To emphasize the former and neglect 
the latter is to be guilty of mere theorizing, while an em- 
phasis of the latter aspect, only, is indulging in arbitrary 
assumptions. 

Since the responsiveness of an individual depends pri- 
marily upon the organization of his experiences, it is es- 

1 Interest in Its Relation to Value, Ostermann. 

2 Elements of Psychology, J. N. Baldwin. 



APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO READING 191 

sential that the teacher have a definite notion of the char- 
acter of these experiences, and how best to draw upon them. 
He must distinguish sharply between the function of racial 
experiences, or instincts, and the function of personal ex- 
periences, the elements of which are gained through the 
senses. 

An Appeal to the Instincts is Worth While. — Hereditary 
control, or instinct, is an animal's inherited organization 
for converting native impulse into personal experience. 
Through the functioning of his instincts the child draws 
upon his environment for his personal welfare. He in- 
stinctively cries and his physical needs are supplied. In- 
stinctively he is curious about things and his curiosity im- 
pels him to examine them closely. He babbles and imi- 
tates and thereby acquires a rich stock of percepts. He 
compares and discriminates and thus attains concepts 
or general truths. Bubbling over with curiosity and 
inquisitiveness, the child presents himself unfettered by 
social custom, to the care of the school. Primarily, the 
first duty of the school is to familiarize him with written 
symbols, increase his oral vocabulary, and enrich his ex- 
periences. The extent to which this is accomplished and 
the way in which it is done mark the success or failure in 
primary method. 

Native curiosity and inquisitiveness must be drawn upon 
in full measure if learning to read is what it should be. 
Written symbols furnish little variety in themselves and 
soon become uninteresting. How can interest be sustained 
in the mastery and interpretation of symbols? 

Expert Knowledge in Primary Reading. — The history of 
effort in the solution of this problem is the history of 
primary method in reading. Some of the attempts are 



192 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

the alphabet method, the word method, the sentence 
method, the phonic method, including specific action and 
dramatization. Each of these so-called methods in read- 
ing has been abandoned or retained on the basis of motiva- 
tion. Before attempting to judge each of these methods 
in terms of motivation it is well to understand the end to 
which it is employed. 

Mark of Successful Methods. — The child's energy is 
exercised in acquiring both content and form. Any method 
that is successful in one should not be evaluated in terms 
of the other. It is just such practices that create meaning- 
less controversies and that tend to emphasize devices until 
they are popularly spoken of as " methods." 

Motivating Factors in Primary Reading 

Since the child has a rich stock of experiences on enter- 
ing school, let us consider those devices that are effective 
in teaching him a written vocabulary. At first children 
express their ideas orally. These in turn are given written 
expression. In a short time a number of written symbols 
will have been introduced, which the children have not 
mastered. An automatic repetition of these symbols is 
often resorted to by the teacher with poor results. It is 
pretty well established that mere repetition without new 
associations availeth little. This work must be motivated. 
To this end the rhythmic instinct may be effectively em- 
ployed. 

The Rhythmic Instinct. — The child by nature is rhyth- 
mical. Because of this innate tendency symbols couched 
in rhythmic form are readily acquired. A jingle of sev- 
eral verses can be memorized in a ten-minute recitation. 
These words are readily recalled when needed. Therein 



APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO READING 193 

lies the secret of this motivating device. When words 
found in the jingle are not recognized elsewhere the child 
has recourse to two sources of help — the teacher and the 
jingle. If he draws upon the former he becomes dependent ; 
if on the latter he learns to help himself, and thus develops 
the spirit of independence and self-activity, both of which 
stimulate mental growth. Thus the rhyme through its 
instinctive appeal becomes an effective device in furnishing 
a real motive for habituating written symbols in the early 
stages of the school. 

Systems of Phonograms. — The so-called " phonic 
method" is another device for helping the child help him- 
self, and though it has no instinctive basis, it makes such 
a strong appeal to the independent spirit of the child that 
it supplies a real motive in primary reading. It becomes 
harmful only when it is made an end rather than a means. 
In the introduction of written symbols it is not wise to 
begin with phonics since such a procedure places form be- 
fore content. Phonograms should not be learned until the 
child has proceeded far enough in the interpretation of 
symbols to realize vaguely the value of phonograms in the 
mastery of the mechanics of these symbols. 

In the acquisition of both words and phonograms the 
spirit of emulation should be appealed to. Phonograms 
and rhymes will stimulate all of the children some of the 
time and some of them all of the time. Neither will create 
a deep interest in all of the children all of the time. Other 
stimulating devices should be employed. Opportunity for 
rivalry should be given in habituating these arbitrary 
forms. Let one child contest with another in repeating 
the most words, reading the most sentences, pronouncing 
the most phonograms. Teams of various kinds may be 



194 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

organized and operated effectively to add interest to this 
otherwise uninteresting work. 

c 

Over-emphasis of Phonograms Results in Short- 
Circuiting 

Meaning of Short-Circuiting. — Constant drill upon 
phonograms and words to which the teacher of primary 
reading resorts, too frequently results in the short-circuit- 
ing of oral and written symbols. Children easily acquire 
the habit of associating sounds, instead of ideas, with 
written symbols. In the language of Hamlet they learn 
to read " words, words, words." To break up this pernicious 
habit and at the same time sustain interest is a serious 
problem. So far as we know no device has been employed 
as yet which is so effective in correcting this defect as that 
of dramatization. Its effectiveness is due, no doubt, to its 
instinctive character. The instinctive basis supplies the 
motive, and the character of the application produces mental 
alertness. 

Two Phases of Dramatization 

Action Reading. — As usually employed dramatization 
should be subdivided into what is popularly called action 
reading and into dramatization proper. Action reading is a 
simple device for forcing the child to get ideas instead of 
sounds from written symbols. By this method the teacher 
directs her children through written . symbols and they re- 
spond in terms of some sort of activity. The pencil " tells " 
John to close the door, to walk to the window, to stand, to 
sit, to run around the room, etc. To recite means to inter- 
pret. There is no chance for deception. To fail means 
more humiliation than does the failure to produce oral 



APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO READING 195 

words. The ingenious teacher can devise games based upon 
the experiences of the child and in this way insure a high 
degree of interest in the interpretation of the printed page. 

Dramatization. — In the latter part of the first year and 
throughout the remainder of the primary grades, interest 
may be enhanced by means of dramatization proper. Por- 
tions of a constantly accumulating vocabulary become more 
or less heavy and obscure, thus partially obscuring the 
thought, dulling the imagination, and retarding the en- 
thusiasm of the child for his work. The setting of problems 
for the children to solve, approval of good interpretation, 
high marks and other common devices will stimulate the 
better children to increased effort. However, they do not 
affect seriously those who are lost in the vagueness and un- 
certainty of words. It is at this point that dramatization 
becomes a most effective device for improving the work. 

Motivating Aspect of Dramatization. — Dramatic ex- 
pression is as old as the race. Man expressed his ideas 
by means of natural symbols for ages before conven- 
tionalized symbols were employed. The persistence of 
the dramatic instinct down to the present time is manifest 
when foreigners are forced to express themselves in a 
strange tongue. Because of its strong instinctive tendency 
dramatization supplies a powerful motive force for the 
teaching of primary reading, history, literature, geography, 
and nature-study. However, the effectiveness of dramati- 
zation depends upon the method of employing it. It 
should be used as a means to an end and not as an end in 
itself. 

By assigning to the different children of the class parts 
in the story to be dramatized, before the story has been 
studied in class, one increases the child's responsibility 



196 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

many fold. By this method one imposes upon the child 
a part to play and he knows not how. The only possible 
source of information is the story itself. Possibly it has 
never occurred to him before that these pages of written 
symbols have a real message for him. In order to get the 
desired information he is forced to scrutinize the symbols 
carefully. He must think of the symbols in terms of ideas. 
He must feel as his character felt, and act as his character 
acted. By this simple device the teacher is enabled di- 
rectly to stimulate children to desire the real meaning of a 
page, the study of which was largely perfunctory before. 

Examples of This Method. — A single example will amplify 
this thought. The children are permitted to dramatize 
Goldenlocks and the Three Bears. The little girl who 
is to play the part of Goldenlocks does not know what to 
do. She is told that the book will tell her. The added 
responsibility incites her to find out what the story says. 
From the very nature of the case she is forced to image 
the situation, to see the separate chairs, one for the "papa 
bear," one for the "mamma bear," and one for the "baby 
bear." Likewise she must image the bed of each of these 
wonderful bears. She must understand the actions of the 
three bears and the motives that prompted them. 

Dramatization as a device for motivating primary work 
needs little or no paraphernalia, no curtained stage, and 
no extra time for long and efficient drill. Indeed, when 
dramatization is made an end in itself, it not only ceases 
to be a device for motivating reading, but in all proba- 
bility becomes positively harmful to children. The results 
of such training are contrary to our whole scheme of educa- 
tion. If modern education stands for anything, it is that 
form is a tool for the conveyance of thought. When form be- 



APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO READING 1 97 

comes over-emphasized it results in superficiality. A 
single dramatic presentation if highly specialized may 
establish insincere ideals that will continue in the life of 
the adult. 

Telling the Story a Motivating Device. — ■ Another effective 
device in the teaching of reading is that of having one 
child, chosen at random, re-tell the story read by the 
class. The certainty that some one will be called upon 
increases responsibility and thus intensifies concentration 
during the reading period. The desire of the child to re- 
late the story to the others in the class is an instinctive 
tendency akin to the strutting instinct. The opportunity 
to tell the story becomes a strong motive in the prepara- 
tion and presentation of the lesson. Few teachers make the 
most of this device. The best effort that we have known in 
third-grade reading was largely stimulated by its use. 

In addition to its motivating power in reading, this 
device serves as a useful plan for the improvement of oral 
language. Language lessons usually fall short because of a 
lack of effective devices for inducing natural expression. 
The "telling of the story" is interesting enough to en- 
courage a fine choice of words with which to express it. 

Use of Pictures. — Pictures are also motivating factors in 
primary reading. The " picture book" is the delight of all 
children. Nothing can be more convincing of the worth- 
whileness of pictures than the beautifully illustrated readers 
for the primary grades. The modern reader is in many 
ways a work of art. Indeed, the greatest contribution to 
elementary reading in the past fifteen years is in the field 
of illustration. So sensitive have we become to the value 
of pictures, both as -motivating factors and as a cultural 
force, that in some cases we have adapted our language to 



198 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

the picture, rather than to the responsive attitude of the 
child. This oversight on the part of some textbook writers 
does not condemn the picture, but on the contrary reveals 
the fact that illustrations have proven so helpful as a means 
that they are made an end by some over-enthusiastic ad- 
vocates of the cultural school. 

Suitable Reading Materials 

Former Source of Reading Materials. — The character 
of the story itself is in many respects the most significant 
motivating factor in primary reading. Until recently, 
subject-matter in reading was handed down from above. 
Primary reading bore somewhat the same relation to the 
classics that the high-school course of ten years ago bore 
to the university courses. In the latter case the uni- 
versity imposed upon the high school the elements of sub- 
jects that were pursued in college. The result was that 
in many cases the subject-matter made little appeal to the 
secondary student, since it did not relate closely enough 
to his interests except when he had planned for himself a 
professional career. 

Reading for children has undergone a similar meta- 
morphosis. The classics were handed down through the 
grades, varying only in difficulty of technique. By the 
time the work was outlined for the upper grades there re- 
mained but a mere remnant for the lower grades. Fortu- 
nately our more recent writers have recognized in part 
that the child is the first consideration in the selection of 
primary reading matter. They have recognized what 
President G. Stanley Hall pointed out a number of years 
ago, that there is a tendency for the child to recapitulate 
the life of the race. Consequently the short, disconnected 



APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO READING 199 

sentences of the old first reader have been displaced by 
the jingle and the mythical story. 

The Instinctive Basis. — The rhythmic instinct and the 
innate tendencies of wonder, make-believe, and fancy 
give a glowing interest to jingles and myths in the first 
two grades. The mythical story, merging into stories of 
animals and especially heroic animal stories, furnishes in- 
teresting materials for the third and fourth grades. The 
heroic story and biographies of heroes are best adapted to 
pre-adolescent children. The pity of it is that we need to 
use stories of this character that are couched in language 
so difficult that much of the interest is lost in an effort to 
master it. This is due largely to the fact that we still 
depend upon the stories of chivalry for these grades. The 
consequence is that many of the words are unfamiliar 
because they have no modern significance. What the 
intermediate grades need most of all just now is some 
reputable heroic stories couched in twentieth century 
language which is simple enough for the children to readily 
comprehend. 

While there are still many defects in our reading ma- 
terials, they are infinitely superior to those of a generation 
ago ; and while the millennium is still far off, it would be 
brought much nearer if theory and practice were properly 
united. Many of us are so old-fashioned, so conservative, 
so imitative, that we like readers modeled after the good 
readers of our own school days. It is hard to secure the 
publication of reading materials based entirely upon 
pedagogic principles, since they will not sell sufficiently to 
justify their publication. 



CHAPTER XIII 

APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO PRIMARY ARITHMETIC, 
WRITING, AND SPELLING 

Origin of Methods in Arithmetic. — Many of our so- 
called methods in arithmetic are but partial truths elabo- 
rated out of all proportion. The result is that much of our 
primary arithmetic has been one-sided, unnatural, and 
uninteresting. For example, Pestalozzi's notion that 
number concepts should be built up from sense contact 
with objects — a theory that has materially influenced 
our practice — though true, by no means represents all 
the truth. It does not take into consideration the native 
interest of the child, which is indeed an important con- 
sideration. As Dewey has pointed out, the application of 
the unit in measurement, because it affords opportunity 
for movement and because it relates more directly to the 
child's natural experiences, is vastly more interesting to 
children than the observation of cubes, rectangles, pyra- 
mids, and the like, advocated so strenuously by the Swiss 
reformer. 

Notable Features in Textbooks. — The most notable 
features of primary books in arithmetic, excluding the 
absence of obsolete subjects, are the attempts, first, to 
present subject-matter in such a way as to develop mathe- 
matical concepts inductively; and secondly, to present 
topics in the cyclic, or psychological, way. Both of these 



ARITHMETIC, WRITING, AND SPELLING 201 

methods employed in primary arithmetics are a decided 
concession to the rights of the child in the learning process. 
Mathematical concepts through the measuring process are 
gradually developed without the child being conscious of the 
fact that the teacher has purposely, though pleasantly, 
helped him to acquire new and useful concepts. Ideas 
of the perimeter and area of rectangles are developed as a 
by-product through the solving of practical problems in 
which the child measures walls, yards, and gardens for the 
purpose of estimating the amount of paper, sod, and seeds 
needed respectively to meet the demands of the problem. 
These problems appeal to his experience and thus stimulate 
effective effort. Such problems are but means to an end 
in the acquisition of mathematical concepts. 

Motivating Factors in Primary Arithmetic 

An Initial Device for Creating Motive. — "Keeping score" 
in the little games initiated by the teacher beautifully 
stresses the intrinsic function of arithmetic. Here for the 
first time the child feels a real need for written arithmetic. 
He wants his side to win and for that reason he has an im- 
pelling desire to master the tools which control the situation. 
Bean bags or walnuts, and a waste-basket are all the ma- 
terials required to initiate this game. The teacher ap- 
points two captains who choose sides. Each member of 
a team when his turn comes pitches four bags at the basket. 
Each captain keeps score for his team. When all have 
pitched the teacher asks for the results. This stimulates 
computation in earnest. At first only a few will fully 
comprehend what is being done. Some bright pupil will 
add the two columns of scores, compare the sums, and if his 
side has won will probably begin to clap his hands ; if he 



202 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

loses, he will look abashed. After the result is compre- 
hended the game is continued as before. 

Keeping Store. — Keeping store makes a strong appeal 
to the interests of pupils. It relates to their home ex- 
periences and makes a keen appeal to their curiosity. The 
financial factor has made store articles forbidden fruit. 
Freed from this economic restraint by the use of paper 
money, the child's desire for investment runs rampant. 
The necessity of accounting for his investment* develops 
a sense of the intrinsic function of arithmetic and lays the 
foundation for habits of the fundamentals. 

The greatest weakness in this phase of primary method 
in arithmetic lies in the lack of a graded series of projects 
capable of being extended over a long period. 

Use of the Cycle. — The psychological, or cyclic, method 
of presenting arithmetical topics rather than the logical 
method has made for greater interest in arithmetic. The 
topical method ignores the fact that the various arith- 
metical topics depend more or less upon each other and 
consequently an attempt to master one topic thoroughly, 
before considering others, deprives the child of knowledge 
that is needed in the mastery of the first topic considered. 
Then, again, such a procedure ignores the fact that ability 
to understand depends upon maturity, both in the sense 
of experience and in the sense of natural development. 
While the native ability and natural experiences of a child 
of ten or eleven enable him to understand some of the 
elements of percentage or of mensuration, they by no means 
qualify him to understand these subjects sufficiently to 
meet the demands that will later be made upon him. 

Persons who object to the cyclic method do so on the 
ground that it is difficult for the teacher to follow con- 



ARITHMETIC, WRITING, AND SPELLING 203 

sistently. For example, the teacher of the seventh grade 
when considering percentage is not quite sure what ex- 
periences the child has had in this subject in previous grades. 
The course of study should reveal this, but better still the 
child should reveal it. If he does not it is evident that 
a review, at .least upon the fundamentals of the subject, 
is essential to further work. Progressive ideas in arithmetic 
method have suffered more perhaps than in any other 
subject with the exception of grammar. This is probably 
due to the tradition that has been persistent here. The 
exactness of these subjects has made them less adaptable 
to the needs of the child and has made it more difficult for 
the teacher to lay aside the method of her own school days 
and adopt one different in form and structure. 

Problems Should Precede Drill. — Excesses in primary 
arithmetic usually result in one of the following practices : 
Either too much consideration is given to drill exercises 
upon the four fundamentals at the expense of problem- 
solving, or problem-solving is given major consideration 
with the thought that skill in the fundamentals will come 
as a by-product. A "middle of the road" policy is better 
suited to the needs of the pupils. A strong lead with prob- 
lems which grow out of the child's needs, followed by 
supplementary drill exercises properly stimulated by in- 
stinctive appeals, brings the best results. These processes 
are complemental, not supplemental, to each other. The 
one tends to strengthen the other. 

Accuracy and Speed. — Accuracy and speed are assured 
only by reducing these processes to automatic reaction. 
Recent tests given in the Training School at Normal, 
Illinois, show conclusively that there is a close correlation 
between accuracy and speed. These tests indicate that a 



204 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

number combination that is habitual is worth more to the 
possessor than one which must have conscious direction. 

To the extent that fundamentals are habituated in the 
early grades one can feel assured that energy will be con- 
served in the higher processes of the upper grades. Free 
the child from the drudgery that results from inefficient 
preparation in the fundamentals and you have added 
materially to his power and interests. Again, accuracy 
in the fundamental processes insures success, and success 
is in itself a strong stimulating factor. 

Since the child is largely a creature of impulse — of 
instinct — his native reactions must be drawn upon to in- 
tensify the personal experiences that the school sees fit to 
create. As these personal experiences increase and thus 
form the basis for other experiences, they should be ap- 
pealed to. The problem, often in the form of the indirect 
question, is an effective device for stimulating thought. 
It is so because it is a natural one. From the time the 
child began to creep until he arrived at the school he had 
been solving problems because he found gratification 
in so doing. This gratification arose partly from the 
desire to know and partly because of the social approval it 
afforded. 

Success. — We must not retard this problem-solving 
tendency by withholding social approval in the school- 
room. It is a positive motivating force. Strong students 
usually receive sufficient approval. The teacher who 
understands the importance of social approval as a motivat- 
ing factor in the solving of the problems of the school will 
avail himself of every opportunity to encourage the children 
by manifesting appreciation of every worthy effort, es- 
pecially of those who are less fortunate than their fellows. 



ARITHMETIC, WRITING, AND SPELLING 205 



Reduction of Processes to Conserve Energy 

The Austrian methods of subtraction and division com- 
mend themselves to practical school men because they 
reduce the number of processes to be learned. Though 
these methods may never become general in America, 
they are, nevertheless, based upon good psychology. The 
reduction of four processes to two by the method of 
elimination, provided this reduction is adequately done, 
conserves energy. 

The following forms indicate the procedure necessary to 
conserve energy. 

Austrian Method of Subtraction. — The solution of the problem _: 

should be read : 5 and 4 are 9. (The 4 should be written when read.) 

23 ^ 
The solution of the problem _^r should be read : 7 and 8 are 15 

(the 8 should be written when the number 15 is read), 5 and 8 are 13, 
1 and 1 are 2. 

Method of "Carrying." — Use of the method of "carrying" em- 
ployed above is comprehended by the pupil if the teacher keeps in 
mind and makes clear to the pupil, 1st, that the difference is found 
by adding and not by subtracting; 2d, that the minuend (in the 
new process) is the sum obtained by collecting the (subtrahend and 
the difference) two addends. 

The problem _ should cause no trouble when the following 
35 
form is used to explain the process : 

29 

35 is read 9 and 5 are 14 ; 3 and 3 are 6. The pupil will be able 
64 to see that the same process is involved when the sum is written 
above the addends as when written below the addends. 



206 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Since the pupil is required to add down the column when finding the 
difference it is desirous that he add down the column when finding the 
sum. 

Austrian Method of Division. — The approach to this solution should 
be a multiplication approach. One should think constantly in terms 
of multiplication. 

352 
24)8448 
72 
124 
120 
~lS 
48 



In the solution of this problem one should proceed as 
follows: 3X24 is 72; 5X24 is 120; 2X24 is 48. The sub- 
tractions involved should be thought in terms of addition 
as explained above. 



An Analysis of the Writing Problem 

Intrinsic Function of Writing. — The intrinsic aims of 
the teaching of writing in the public schools are : a relatively 
high degree of legibility, speed, freedom, and ease of move- 
ment. It is the business of the teacher to diagnose the 
writing of her room in order to determine the relative 
merit of the qualities referred to above. 

Application of a Writing Scale. — The degree of legi- 
bility may be determined roughly by means of standardized 
scales, such as the Ayres l and the Thorndike scales, 2 or 
more analytically, by means of the Freeman Scales. 3 A 
consistent legibility of seventy per cent on the Ayres scale 
produced at the rate of one hundred words per minute 
should be sufficient evidence that the pupils' time may 
be better employed at some other work than at special 
exercises in writing. 

1 Handwriting Scale, Ayres. Russell Sage Foundation, N. Y. 

2 Handwriting Scale, Thorndike. Teachers College, N. Y. 

3 Teaching of Handwriting, Freeman. Houghton Mifflin Co. 



ARITHMETIC, WRITING, AND SPELLING 207 

Form of Movement and Quality of Writing Habit 

Freedom and ease of movement depend primarily upon 
the form of movement employed and the quality of habits 
established. Fortunately there is a pretty common agree- 
ment as to the form of movement which should be employed 
and as to the laws which are fundamental to the estab- 
lishment of the habits required. 

Muscular Movement. — Relative to the form of move- 
ment, Professor Freeman says : "The arm movement with 
rest — the so-called muscular movement — seems likely 
to become practically universal in American Schools within 
twenty-five years." This movement is adaptable to any 
of the common slants and meets the needs of any of the 
so-called systems of writing now "touring" the country. 

By far the biggest problem in writing is still unsolved 
after slant, alinement of letters, and form of movement 
have been determined. The problem yet unsolved is that 
of reducing the proper writing movements to habit. 

Psychic Principles Involved in Writing 

Fundamentally, habit-forming in writing is not different 
as a teaching process from habit-forming in other subjects. 
It differs merely in detail and emphasis. 

A Disagreement among Writing Masters. — The greatest 
disagreement and consequently the most discussion have 
resulted from the application of the first law in habit-forma- 
eion to the teaching of writing habits. There is a disa- 
greement as to what the attention should be focused upon 
at the beginning of the process. 

The Visual Percept. — Writing teachers have generally 
maintained that a visual percept of the desired form is a 



208 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

necessary prerequisite to movement in writing. To this end 
correct forms have been prepared for the pupils, and devices 
have been constructed which make it possible to keep these 
forms constantly before them during the writing period. 

This belief has also been the source of many of our so- 
called systems of writing. Slight differences in the form 
of the letters and variations in the drill exercises have 
constituted the essential differences in the "systems" and 
" methods" which the uninitiated refer to with pride. 

The Montessorian Method 

The Muscular Percept. — Montessori was the first to 
question seriously the potency of the visual percept in the 
establishment of the fundamental habits of writing. She 
maintained instead that the writing movement depends 
upon muscular percepts. These she maintained are most 
economically formed through controlled letter movements 
by means of grooved letters. This forces muscular control 
and eliminates an enormous amount of waste occasioned 
by the chance variation resulting from an attempt to ex- 
press the visual percepts. 

By this means Montessori has obtained marvelous re- 
sults. It is never safe, however, to evaluate a method with- 
out eliminating the teacher, since great teachers get as- 
tonishing results with almost any method. There are 
other experiences which seem to corroborate the Montes- 
sorian inference. Muscular control of mechanical devices 
for manipulating machinery, the adaptation of one's body 
or position to the furniture, to the saddle, and to other 
situations where specific adaptations are made by es- 
tablishing automatic reactions, seem to corroborate the 
theory of the muscular percept. 



ARITHMETIC, WRITING, AND SPELLING 200. 

Since the Montessorian method has scarcely affected the 
schools of America we need concern ourselves only with the 
habits involved in ordinary writing. 

Application of the Formal Steps to the Teaching 
of Writing 

Focalizing the attention upon the thing to be habituated 
is the first conscious step in the teaching of habits. It 
applies to the teaching of writing also. It involves a close 
scrutiny of the form, slant, and alinement of the letters 
in the copy and of the position required to produce the 
movement needed. Personal demonstration and guidance 
by the teacher at the outset will prevent the undoing of 
many half -formed habits in writing. Once the letter to be 
made and the movement required to produce it are clearly 
visualized, the next step is needed. 

The second step, that of creating initiative, according 
to James, is the test of the successful teaching of writing. 
To this end, Rowe points out that the teacher should re- 
gard the whole list of instincts as a keyboard upon which 
he is to work out the harmonious reactions essential to good 
writing. Enthusiasm should be generated sufficiently to 
propel repeated and thrice repeated movements until the 
form is satisfactory and the movement habituated. 

A single shot, though it bring down the object sought, 
is but a slight indication of shooting skill, since the law of 
chance is always operative. Nine clay pigeons out of ten 
is necessary to win the respect of sportsmen. A single 
ball over the home plate with a good quality of curve and 
speed will in no wise insure the sender a position in a 
National League game. Consistency in either case is 
necessary to ultimate success. But consistency in shooting 



2IO THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

and in playing ball comes only after multitudinous efforts, 
made possible and endurable by an abundance of en- 
thusiasm and unyielding determination. 

What is true in the sports is true in the formation of 
correct habits of writing. Success in writing depends upon 
one's ability to maintain an abundance of enthusiasm in 
order that consistency of effort be sustained until the habit 
is formed. Repetition in and of itself may amount to 
very little. Indeed, it may be as harmless in writing as in 
ethics, unless it be repetition of the right sort. A high 
degree of continuous interest is absolutely necessary to 
maintain drill for a sufficient length of time to insure the 
proper habit. 

The effect of repetition in writing varies from zero to a 
high degree of success. It all depends upon the conscious 
effort expended in this third step in habit formation. 
Too frequently, practice in writing is little more than 
mere perfunctory routine which fixes bad habits as per- 
sistently as it establishes new ones. Much of the dead 
wood of learning is in the so-called lifeless drills. An ap- 
peal to the instincts must be made until a wholesome en- 
thusiasm is established. 

A frequent measurement of the quality of the hand- 
writing in a room by means of a standard scale is wonder- 
fully motivating. Children like to work when their progress 
is measured. They have little incentive when it is not. 
It is quite common for a grade to raise its average quality 
from forty per cent and forty-five per cent to sixty-five 
per cent and seventy per cent, in three or four months under 
the inspiration of frequent measurements. 

The setting aside of one school day each spring to be 
known as handwriting day is a great impetus to writing. 



ARITHMETIC, WRITING, AND SPELLING 211 

The growth indicated in the improvement of the various 
grades should be displayed both by samples and charts. 
It offers an opportunity for the pupils of the school to 
compare the work of the several rooms and to get the 
inspiration such a comparison affords. 

The prevention of exceptions, or fourth step in methods 
of handwriting, is best secured by keeping up a high 
degree of interest. The mechanical device of moving the 
unwritten line up to the copy when the preceding line is 
completed should aid in this particular. The constant 
attention of the teacher is required at this juncture to 
maintain a high degree of efficiency. 

The Spelling Problem Analyzed 

Influence of Reformers. — Spelling, like reading, has been 
the victim of the intellectualizer on the one hand and the 
habit former on the other. There has been a steady swing 
of the pendulum back and forth between these two classes 
of spelling reformers. Judging from the literature that 
has been put upon the market in the past fifteen years, there 
is to be quite a little vibrating of the spelling needle be- 
fore it comes to rest upon the zero mark. 

Rice's Contribution. — In the April Forum of 1897, Dr. 
J. M. Rice submitted his findings on spelling, which were 
continued in the June number of the same magazine. 
After culling over an extensive amount of material he ar- 
rived at the strange conclusion that "In learning to spell 
maturity is the leading factor, while method plays only a 
subordinate part." He says, " There is no direct relation 
between method and results." This is certainly a strong 
indictment, and one that should challenge the attention 
of teachers of method. He thinks that variation in results 



212 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

depends upon, first, maturity; and second, upon the 
ability of the teacher. Strange as it may seem, how- 
ever, as Cornman points out, he advocates a daily drill of 
at least fifteen minutes and recommends the teaching of 
rules which have wide application and few exceptions. 

Commands Contribution. — In 1902, Dr. Oliver P. Corn- 
man issued a monograph from the psychological laboratory 
of the University of Pennsylvania, on spelling efficiency. 
He arrived at conclusions very similar to those of Dr. Rice 
so far as method in teaching spelling is concerned. Re- 
ferring to the value of teaching spelling, he says, "The 
conclusion, therefore, is forced upon us that a method of 
teaching spelling, the suspension of whose operation for 
three years is not plainly manifested in such a series of 
tests [as he gave], is of so little importance as to be prac- 
tically negligible." His further conclusions are: "It is 
therefore advisable in view of the economy of time, to rely 
upon the incidental teaching of spelling to produce a 
sufficiently high average result." The conclusions of Rice 
and Cornman have done much to distribute responsibility 
for spelling to the various school subjects and to cause in 
many schools a discontinuance of the separate spelling 
lessons or drills. 

Wallin's Contribution. — Nine years after Cornman made 
his report upon spelling another monograph on spelling 
came forth, and strangely enough it came from a laboratory 
of clinical psychology — this time from Dr. J. E. Wallace 
Wallin of the New Jersey state village for epileptics. Re- 
ferring to Rice's and Cornman's conclusions relative to the 
efficiency of spelling methods, he says, "These conclusions 
fly directly in the face of the results of tests by other in- 
vestigators — Newman, Abbott, Krantz, Charters, and 



ARITHMETIC, WRITING, AND SPELLING 213 

those carried on in the Milwaukee and Cleveland schools." 
After calling attention to the splendid results obtained in 
the two cities mentioned above, by systematic drill, he 
says, "Obviously the above facts do not warrant the 
assertion that method in the teaching of spelling is merely 
an incidental detail, nor do they lend support to the con- 
tention that modern pedagogy demands the substitution 
of the incidental for the drill method, as advocated by 
Cornman." 

Application of Rules. — It will be remembered that 
Rice advocated a few rules in the teaching of spelling. 
Many texts and many teachers of spelling have used rules 
freely in the teaching of spelling before and since that 
time. To test the efficiency of rules in this connection, 
W. A. Cook, a fellow at the University of Wisconsin, carried 
on a series of tests with academic students and with college 
freshmen. After giving the details of his findings he 
concluded that rules in the teaching of spelling are not 
'effective unless in the hands of an exceptional teacher. 
He says, "The writer does not believe that a single rule 
which he tested demonstrated its efficiency, excepting, the 
rule that applies to words ending in 'ie' which is changed 
to ' y ' when adding the suffix ' ing ' — a rule without ex- 
ceptions." He continues in the following language: "It 
is at least evident that rules for spelling do not teach them- 
selves; that thoroughness of digestion demands that they 
be given in widely separated doses, and that they must 
be introduced, if at all, in the elementary school during 
the habit-forming period. The presumption is even then 
against a favorable outcome except with a superior teacher." 

The results of an experiment carried on in the Training 
School at Normal, Illinois, substantiates Cook's conclusions 



214 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

so far as they refer to rules of a relatively limited applica- 
tion. Statements from persons considering themselves 
good spellers also corroborate Cook's conclusions as to 
the efficiency of rules. 

Results of Investigation. — Two splendid results have 
come from all these investigations in spelling : First, the 
early investigations in spelling by Rice and Cornman led 
directly to the research work which has culminated in the 
objective standards that are proving of great educational 
value. Second, they have been directly responsible for 
the investigations of the spelling vocabularies of the children 
in the several grades, by Jones and others. Jones's investi- 
gation alone in this particular is an epoch-making piece of 
work. 1 

The old lists of words retained in the spelling archives 
for generations are being revised. Words which do not 
have vital significance to pupils are eliminated and those 
of which the child is in daily need are used. If the spelling 
revolution has accomplished nothing more than a re- 
vision of the spelling lists, it has been well worth while. 

Simplified Spelling Received a Strong Impetus 

The simplified spelling movement secured a strong im- 
petus from the spelling revolution. The ultimate effect 
of this movement upon spelling cannot be foretold as yet. 
The fact that it is firmly supported by many persons of 
distinction and ability indicates that many of the in- 
tricacies of words gradually but surely will be removed. 
This movement will not down for long. Succeeding 
waves will be stronger than those which preceded them 

1 The Child's Own Speller, Jones, 



ARITHMETIC, WRITING, AND SPELLING 215 

until a decided improvement in the structure of many of 
our common English words prevails. 

Best Methods of Teaching Spelling Still in Doubt. — On 
the method side, the results have not been so satisfactory. 
There is plenty of evidence to show that there exists a 
decided disagreement over methods of teaching spelling. 
Students of spelling are divided mainly into two camps, 
those who believe in rationalizing the spelling process by 
means of rules, and those who consider spelling, in the main, 
an ideo-motor performance, subject to the same laws as 
writing and the mechanics of reading. The marvelous 
results of drill secured in the Cleveland schools by Hicks ; 
the findings of Wallin, Cook, and others ; the uncertainty 
of rules by good spellers ; and the general tendency to re- 
vert to the old-time spelling match, growing out of a con- 
sciousness of the inefficiency of our spelling — all tend to 
corroborate the belief that spelling should be reduced to the 
lower nerve-centers, so to speak, and that an abundance of 
highly intensified drills are essential to secure this result. 

Application or the Laws op Habit Formation to 
the Teaching of Spelling 

Proper focalization in spelling in the first stages means 
rationalization. It means an understanding of the con- 
tent of the words found in a familiar context. In the case 
of words of many syllables, it implies marked attention to 
these syllables ; in the case of homonyms, it means the 
mastery of one and a sharp comparison of the second with 
the first. It signifies everything that gives the child a 
clearer visual, auditory, and muscular percept of the word 
to be learned. Here as in writing it consists of more than 
the intellectual process. There must be enthusiasm, de- 



2l6 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

termination, and a passion for winning. As in writing, 
a play upon the instincts, if rightly conducted, will bring 
excellent results. It is in this stage of the process that 
good teaching is easiest distinguished from poor. Many a 
race is lost in' sight of the goal. This is especially true 
of the spelling race. Persistent and attentive repetition 
is an earmark of good method in teaching spelling also. 
It is the factor that distinguished the spelling of a genera- 
tion ago. It is an essential factor yet. The teaching of 
spelling incidentally does not meet the requirements of the 
third factor in habit formation. 

Frequent testing by means of standardized tests will 
stimulate the pupils to greater concentration and will 
guarantee a higher degree of success. It is an important 
factor in preventing exceptions, also, and should therefore 
aid materially in the growth of spelling ability. 



CHAPTER XIV 
STANDARDS FOR MEASURING RESULTS OF TEACHING 

General Meaning of Efficiency. — At present our peda- 
gogical literature bristles with the term " efficiency." Even 
writers of ability use it extravagantly. The term itself 
seems to satisfy. It suggests the shop, the factory, and the 
salesroom where performances are judged in terms of the 
concrete and where definite standards are blocked out in 
open competition. It apparently pacifies the longing for 
scientific accuracy and generates a feeling of confidence in 
him who sets it up for his goal. 

Unfortunately the teaching profession in the main has 
adopted efficiency as its slogan without making adequate 
provision for determining when it is attained. Until the 
spokesmen for the profession can in a very simple and in a 
very practical way point out the meaning of efficiency as 
it relates to specific attainment and can give explicit di- 
rections for obtaining a high degree of efficiency by this 
or that sort of teaching, the term "efficiency" must 
remain more or less platitudinous. 

Measurement of Efficiency in the Industries. — In the 
industries the ability of the performer is easily measured, 
since the products of his labor are objective, concrete, and 
readily subjected to comparative tests. The efficiency of 
the blacksmith is measured by the length of time the shoe 

217 



2l8 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

clings to the hoof and by the degree of comfort it gives the 
horse. The efficiency of a dentist is measured by the length 
of time the filling remains in order or by the permanence 
and comfort of the bridge he has made. The efficiency of a 
gardener is determined by the number and quality of 
vegetables produced per unit of area. In any case when 
the result is better than that ordinarily produced the 
performer is thought of as having superior ability, and con- 
sequently he is considered relatively efficient. 

Subjectively considered, efficiency is the ability to produce 
superlative results consistently. The median or average of 
all the abilities in a select group is a desirable standard to 
use in an endeavor to determine the merit of individual 
performances. In the industrial and scientific fields such 
standards are well known. In the teaching profession 
we have just begun to use them advantageously. 

Legal Aspect of Standards. — With the single exception of 
the minimum knowledge requirement, which is generally 
provided by law, there is no other legally accepted standard 
for judging teaching efficiency. The wide and varied use 
of standards employed in determining the ability of 
teachers is notorious. 

The far-reaching significance of the conditions resulting 
from the application of dissimilar standards is beyond the 
comprehension of those who evaluate the teaching process 
in terms of local and personal standards. There is not a 
little evidence to substantiate the opinion that subnor- 
mality, retardation, disinterestedness, disobedience, and 
withdrawals from school are the direct result of the in- 
adequate standards held by administrators and teachers. 
Until some of the standards now employed in measuring 
the results of the teaching process are discarded and others 



STANDARDS FOR MEASURING RESULTS 219 

are materially modified, the proportion of abnormalities 
occurring in the schools will not be changed materially. 

Classification of Standards of Measurement 

There are two distinct classes of standards now employed 
in determining the merit of teaching. These may well be 
called subjective standards and objective standards. The 
former are notions of the relative merit of a performance. 
These notions may be imitated ; they may be implicit de- 
ductions from insufficient and poorly evaluated individual 
experiences ; or they may be a priori in origin. It is certain 
that no two persons have the same subjective standard. 
The latter consists of the median or average accomplish- 
ment expressed in accepted units, such as per cent, of a 
widely distributed yet carefully selected group. 

Subjective Standards 

This class of standards is in the main the outgrowth of 
an attempt on the part of teachers, administrators, and 
patrons to judge the results of teaching in terms of opinion 
or in terms of data highly colored by opinion and personal 
prejudices. 

Many subjective standards were generally introduced in 
the early stages of educational development and are still 
employed by persons unfamiliar with the science of measur- 
ing the results of teaching. The value of some of these 
standards has been confirmed by educational experts. 
The importance of these standards consists mainly in stim- 
ulating an analysis of the process and in giving valuable 
direction to teaching. They are not valuable as standards 
of merit. 



220 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Pupil-Community Attitude. — This standard is too fre- 
quently used by school officials in determining the merit 
of their teachers. If the children and the community are 
fond of a teacher it is assumed that he is giving splendid 
service in the classroom. If he is not generally popular 
it is taken for granted that he is giving poor service. Doubt- 
less this standard was developed in and about the private 
school, and especially the subscription school where the 
teacher " boarded around." Under such conditions adapta- 
bility was the prime requisite of survival. In spite of the 
wonderful growth in the science of teaching there still 
exists in some communities the notion that popularity 
is an index of efficiency. 

It is reasonably certain that a teacher of character and 
of fine teaching ability will win the respect and usually 
the admiration of his pupils and patrons. It is quite as 
reasonably certain that a relatively inferior teacher may 
and not infrequently does win the esteem and hearty sup- 
port of the entire community in which he teaches. This 
esteem may result from local political activity, church con- 
nections, participation in club activities, or it may be 
in response to a wholesome attitude of the teacher towards 
the life of the community, all of which may be excellent 
supplementary qualities for a teacher to possess. Cer- 
tainly they should not be the main consideration in the 
selection of a teacher. 

Being a "good fellow" is an enviable human trait, but 
it has no legitimate place among the basic standards with 
which to determine the worth of teachers. The social and 
personal qualities of the officers of a bank do not become an 
incentive to one with money to deposit until the standing 
of the bank and the integrity of the officials have been 



STANDARDS FOR MEASURING RESULTS 221 

ascertained. The hearty greeting and the talkative pro- 
pensities of a barber do not become an inducement to 
one to patronize his shop until one has determined the 
fine quality of his razor and the sanitary practices of his 
establishment. No thoughtful parent will let church 
connections, social prestige, political affiliations, or friend- 
ship of long standing be the predominating factor in the 
choice of a physician for his dangerously sick child. Cer- 
tainly there are stronger reasons why these supplemental 
and most desirable qualities should not be considered basic 
in the selection of a teacher. 

Grades and Promotions. — Another common and widely 
used standard of judging teaching efficiency, and one 
closely related to the above, is that of grades and pro- 
motions. It is passing strange that this standard of measure- 
ment should be relied upon so extensively. A parent 
usually thinks his children well taught if they receive 
high grades. He is quite as strongly convinced of the 
teacher's inferiority if his children fail of promotion. In 
view of recent investigations in respect to the reliability 
of grades as an index of actual achievement, this standard 
is a travesty upon the science of education. A grade as 
ordinarily determined, to say the least, is the expression 
of a conglomerate impression which may be colored by a 
single performance of the pupil, by his general attitude 
towards the school, by the emotional attitude of the 
teacher, or by the personal relations which exist between 
teacher and pupil or between the teacher and the family 
of the pupil. 

Grades vary in proportion to the variation in personal 
standards. It is reasonable to suppose that an easy- 
going teacher is more likely to give high grades than is the 



22 2 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

teacher who is excessively conscientious and diligent in an 
endeavor to improve the standing of his pupils. It not 
infrequently happens that the grades of two chums, or of 
two children whose families are intimate, are adjusted from 
month to month so that first one pupil and then the other 
has the higher grade. It is notorious that good children 
receive higher grades in proportion to their ability than do 
mischievous children. Other influences well known to the 
profession are factors in determining grades. The multi- 
plicity of factors involved in grade-making is a strong 
indictment of the practice of judging teachers exclusively 
or even partially on the basis of the promotion list. 

Classroom Technique. — The value of this standard 
rests on the assumption that there is a close correlation 
between the character of the stimuli employed by the 
teacher and the character of the child's controls which re- 
sult from the use of such stimuli. 

On the basis of this assumption one proceeds to de- 
termine a teacher's efficiency by an examination of her 
classroom technique. The following items are usually 
considered in such procedure : (i) forms of presenting 
subject-matter, such as the lecture method, the textbook 
method, the developing method, including a combination 
of one or more of these methods ; (2) the character of the 
question employed — the direct question, indirect question, 
elliptical question, and the leading question ; (3) the sort 
of other devices used — illustrations, drawings, field trips, 
concrete materials for science work, pictures, and maps; 
(4) the language of the teacher, his intonation, the board 
work, the general appearance of the classroom, and es- 
pecially the spiritual atmosphere of the room. 

This standard is decidedly more reliable than either of 



STANDARDS FOR MEASURING RESULTS 223 

those previously considered. It finds justification in the 
common agreement that the majority of teachers who get 
splendid results employ a good technique. In fact, teachers 
of this type find technique indispensable. It is in har- 
mony also with certain generally accepted psychological 
principles. However, technique is not of itself a sufficient 
guarantee of adequate results, because of the large number 
of variables introduced in its application. The value 
of a device depends in large measure upon the experiences, 
judgment, temperament, zest, clearness of vision, physical 
energy, and high ideals of the teacher. Without these 
attributes in their proper proportion, technique is the 
lifeless movement of school machinery ; with them it is a 
dynamic force which produces accuracy, effectiveness, 
consistency, and the proper distribution of time and energy. 

The Reactive Attitude of the Child. — In discussing the 
relative merit of this standard with that of the preceding 
one, F. M. McMurry says: 1 " Teachers, supervisors of 
teachers, and authors of books on teaching have been so 
intently observant of the procedure of the teacher that they 
have overlooked that of the pupil. Yet the center of 
gravity of the school lies in the pupil, and what he himself 
finally does determines the value of the teacher's efforts. 
He therefore should be the primary object of considera- 
tion rather than the teacher, and the quality of the in- 
struction should be judged mainly in terms of his activity." 

In conformity with this notion McMurry formulated the 
following criteria for the measuring of teaching efficiency : 1 
(1) motive on the part of the child ; (2) consideration of 
values by the pupils ; (3) attention to organization by 
the pupils ; (4) initiative by the pupils. 

1 Elementary School Standards. World Book Company. 



224 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

The superiority of this standard over those previously 
mentioned is at once apparent. It strikes right at the 
heart of the learning process, or as Tompkins would put 
it, at the spiritual unity of the child. The author of the 
above criteria not only believes in the theory that "the 
center of gravity of the school lies in the pupil," but he 
applies this theory daily in his classroom. 

As principles of direction the above criteria are all that 
is desired. They force an analysis of the teaching process, 
and suggest the proper distribution and emphasis of the 
teaching agencies. They are basic to our whole scheme of 
pedagogy. To abandon the principles underlying these 
criteria would be to ignore teaching as a profession. 

Though indispensable as an agency for the improvement 
of teaching, these criteria are decidedly inadequate as a 
means of determining the relative merit of teaching. Their 
inadequacy is due to the fact that the character of their 
application depends entirely upon the judgments of those 
who attempt to determine the merit of teaching. The 
necessity of interpretation introduces a decided variable. 

The decisions of several judges as to the merits of a 
certain recitation will vary in proportion to the variation in 
their experiences and insight. What may seem to be 
"motive on the part of the child," to one observer, may 
appear as excessive emotion to another. Indications of a 
"consideration of values," to one judge, may appear as a 
wanton neglect of essentials to another. "Attention to 
organization," to another observer, may impress his as- 
sociates as being a mere juggling of facts. Indeed, what 
may seem to one critic as "initiative of the pupils" may 
appear to another as rampant individualism. Just as the 
jury is an uncontrollable variable in the machinery of 



STANDARDS FOR MEASURING RESULTS 225 

justice, so the supervisor as a personal judge of teaching 
efficiency is a variable that is exceedingly difficult to 
reckon with in the application of the McMurry criteria. 

Guides and Unstandardized Scales. — Numerous guides 
and scales have been developed of recent years for estimat- 
ing the work of teachers. These are valuable to the super- 
visor in that they force analysis of the teaching act and 
thereby make it possible for him to determine the relatively 
strong and weak points in the recitation, and afford an 
opportunity for him to give the teacher some practical sug- 
gestions as to the improvement of methods. 

The following "ten-point scale" is somewhat typical of 
helps of this sort. 

Ten-Point Scale for Estimating Classroom Work in High 

Schools * 

I. "Setting" of class topics in the course. 

II. Mastery of intellectual content and effective logical organiza- 
tion of materials. 

III. The mechanics of classroom management. Economy of time 

and grasp of pedagogical technique. 

IV. Effective emphasis upon the mental processes and values 

peculiar and essential to the subject. 
V. Independence of teacher and class as a growth toward their 

material. 
VI. Suitability to the pupil of the type of recitation employed. 
VII. The "common sense" factor. 
VIII. Evidence of culture versus mere erudition. 
IX. Class participation and class sense of responsibility. 
X. Class respect for learning. 

Scales of this sort do not, however, materially assist 
the supervisor in judging teaching efficiency. In the 

1 A tentative scale prepared by the late Professor Charles Hughes John- 
ston of the University of Illinois in conjunction with the Principals' Club 
which he founded. 



226 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

application of this scale, as in the application of the 
McMurry standards, a marked variable is introduced in 
the judge who applies it. Furthermore, the points are 
not of equal significance. Some of these points are several 
times more significant than others. Two teachers of 
widely different abilities when measured by this scale may 
receive the same numerical mark. One may be stronger 
in the essentials ; the other, stronger in the non-essentials. 
Even if the relative value of each point were determined, 
the former objection holds. 



CHAPTER XV 
GROWTH AND APPLICATION OF OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 

Classes of Objective Standards. — Objective standards fall 
roughly into two classes : standardized scores and standard- 
ized scales. A standardized score is the median score of 
all the individual scores made upon a carefully graded 
test, by a highly selected and widely distributed group of 
pupils. For example, the median score made on a special 
test in arithmetic by eighth-grade pupils in many villages 
and cities of several states is a standardized score. A 
standardized scale is one composed of a graded series of 
pupils' contributions each of which has been given a value 
relative to one whose value has been arbitrarily fixed. 
Usually the contribution with the arbitrarily fixed value is 
at the top or bottom of the scale. 

The Ayres Handwriting Scale is a standardized scale. 
The Thorndike Drawing Scale and the Harvard-Newton 
Composition Scales are standardized scales also. These 
scales were determined by arbitrarily fixing the value of 
one or two contributions and then proportioning the other 
values in the order of their relative merit. 

Objective standards generally have been called " tests" 
or " scales." Since a "scale" is also a test, it is evident 
that " score" is more descriptive of the fact than "test." 
For this reason the classification used here consists of scores 
and scales, respectively. 

227 



228 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Origin of Objective Standards. — Dr. J. M. Rice is the 
father of objective standards in America. Zealous for 
better opportunities for the child, enthused by his psy- 
chological studies at Jena and Leipsic, free from preju- 
dices which sometimes result from a limited experience in 
teaching, he set for his task the exposition of certain evils 
which he conceived to exist in the public schools. Conse- 
quently from 1 89 1 to 1896 he became a critical student of 
education. After examining the schools of one hundred 
American cities, ' he pointed out in the columns of the 
Forum what seemed to him to be remedial measures for 
the schools of those cities. 

After four years of constant investigation he came to the 
very decided conviction that concerted effort towards ob- 
taining satisfactory results in public education is impossible 
until it is known what satisfactory results are. "If we do 
not know," he wrote in the Forum, December, 1896, "what 
we mean by satisfactory results, how shall we be able with 
any degree of intelligence to judge when our task has been 
satisfactorily performed? Until we come to a definite 
understanding in regard to this matter, our entire edu- 
cational work will lack direction and we shall continue, 
as heretofore, to grope our way along passages completely 
enveloped in darkness in an endeavor to land we know not 
where. 

"If we might have a standard which would enable us to 
tell when our task has been completed, our attention might 
be earnestly directed towards the discovery of short cuts 
in educational processes. For want of such a standard 
each individual teacher has thus far been a law unto him- 
self ; permitted to experiment on his pupils in accordance 
with his own individual educational notions, whether in- 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 229 

herited from his grandfather or the result of his study and 
reflection, entirely regardless of what was being done by 
others. So long as this condition is possible pedagogy 
cannot lay claims to recognition as a science. Until an 
accurate standard of measurement [my italics] is recognized 
by which, such truths may be discovered, ward politicians 
will continue to wield the baton and educational anarchy 
will continue to prevail." 

Spelling Standards 

The First Objective Standards. — In his characteristic 
way Rice set out in 1896 to establish a standard of measure- 
ment for spelling. He undertook personally the herculean 
task of examining 13,000 children in spelling. This in- 
vestigation extended over a period of sixteen months and 
included sixteen American cities. 

The children were tested on a list of words, on words 
given to them in sentences, and on the words used in their 
compositions. The tabulated results in the Forum for 
April, 1897, is, so far as I have discovered, the first ob- 
jective standard in spelling or in any other subject. The 
list of words standardized by him consists of too few words 
to be of service in judging the spelling abilities of children. 
The list of words presented in sentences is subject to the 
same criticism. This objection does not hold for his com- 
position test. Had he estimated the per cent of words 
correctly spelled in the compositions on the basis of the 
number of different words used, instead of upon the basis 
of the entire number of words used, he would have estab- 
lished the first practical objective standard. As it is, his 
per cents of words correctly spelled are entirely too high. 

Commands Spelling Standard. — Dr. O. P. Cornman of 



230 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Philadelphia, stimulated by the work of Rice, carried 
on a series of tests in spelling by the composition method, 
extending from June, 1896, to June, 1898. In 1903 he 
published the results of this investigation in a volume en- 
titled Spelling in the Elementary School. Though Corn- 
man's data were carefully gathered and methodically 
tabulated, the results which he obtained were little more 
satisfactory than those of Rice, in that he counted all 
words in the composition and determined the ratio of the 
spelled words and misspelled words in terms of per cent. 
He not only counted the recurring words which were 
spelled correctly but the recurring misspelled words as 
well. This accounts for his percentages being lower than 
those reported by Rice. 

The work of Rice and Cornman stimulated many young 
men to begin work in educational research. Edward L. 
Thorndike, who has since become the wizard of the ob- 
jective standard, wrote in the Forum in 1905 as follows : 
"The study of education is beginning to be quantitative, 
we are becoming properly disgusted with the one-sided 
booking which only takes account of dollars spent and 
neglects the debit side, the income in knowledge, habits, 
power, zeal, and ideals. This ambition toward an exact 
objective measurement of the results of educational en- 
deavor is a symptom of healthy scientific fervor and also 
of common-sense wisdom. No one possessed of science 
or sense will deny the value of successful quantitative 
study of school work." 

Ayres's Spelling Scale. 1 — All of the words which compose 
the Ay res Spelling Scale were selected on the basis of their 
frequency in the letters from some 7000 children in eighty- 

1 Distributed by the Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 23 1 

four widely separated cities, in newspaper articles, and in 
selections from standard literature. The manuscripts 
examined aggregated 368,000 words from 2500 different 
writers. 

The one thousand words most frequently used were 
selected for the Ay res Spelling Scale. These words were 
grouped into fifty fists of twenty words each. The dif- 
ficulty of these groups was tested by giving them to 
the children of a number of cities. After the first test 
the words were regrouped into fifty fists of twenty words 
each and again presented to the children of the grades. 

On the basis of these two tests the original one thousand 
words were arranged into twenty-six groups. The system- 
atic arrangement of these twenty-six groups, with the 
difficulty each offers expressed in per cent, constitutes 
the well-known and popular Ayres Spelling Scale. 

The Buckingham Spelling Scale. 1 — The author of this 
scale chose fifty words from five spelling books, each of 
which was found in at least two of the spelling books. 
These words were arranged into two lists of twenty-five 
each by means of a statistical method. In the final ar- 
rangement the lists are consistently progressive in diffi- 
culty from the third grade to the eighth. The relative 
difficulty of each word is likewise determined. The com- 
paratively few words employed in this test limits its 
practical value. 

Starch's Spelling Scale. 2 — Starch has a spelling scale 
which is composed of six lists each of which contains one 
hundred words. These words were chosen from Webster's 
New International Dictionary. The plan consisted of 

1 Prepared by Prof. R. B. Buckingham, University of Illinois. 

2 Prepared by Prof. Daniel Starch, University of Wisconsin. 



232 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

choosing the first defined word on the even-numbered pages 
of the dictionary and of the arrangement of these in the 
order of the number of letters composing them. 

Jones's Spelling Demons. 1 — Jones has listed the one 
hundred words which he found most frequently misspelled 
by children. He calls this group the "One Hundred 
Spelling Demons of the English Language." Teachers in 
the upper grades should drill the pupils upon these words 
until they are mastered. 

Method of Teaching Word Lists. — Good sense as well as 
good method prompts one to determine the relative dif- 
ficulty of the words listed for the term or year by giving 
to the class without previous preparation all of the words 
listed. These words should then be arranged in the order 
of their relative difficulty. The relative difficulty of the 
words in any list is indicated by the number of persons who 
misspell each. 

Writing Standards 

Thorndike's Handwriting Scale. — The first satisfactory 
result, from a practical point of view, of all the agitation for 
quantitative standards of measurement occurred in 19 10. 
In that year Thorndike's Scale for Judging Handwriting 
appeared in the Teachers College Record. Referring to 
this scale, Ayres says, "The credit of developing the first 
measuring scale for handwriting belongs to Professor 
Edward L. Thorndike of Teachers College, Columbia 
University. The publication, in March, 1910, of his 
Handwriting Scale constituted a most important con- 
tribution not only to experimental pedagogy, but to the 
entire movement for the scientific study of education." 

1 Child's Own Spelling Book, Jones. 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 233 

In reference to the need of such a scale, Thorndike said : 
"At present we can do no better than estimate a hand- 
writing as very bad, good, very good, or extremely good, 
knowing only vaguely what we mean thereby, running a 
risk of shifting our standards with time and only by chance 
meaning the same by a word as some other student of the 
facts means by it. We are in the condition in which the 
students of temperature were before the discovery of the 
thermometer, or any other scale for measuring temperature 
beyond the very hot, hot, warm, lukewarm, and the like, of 
subjective opinion." 

The Thorndike scale is composed of the handwriting of 
children in grades five to eight inclusive. The writing from 
these grades was grouped into eleven groups on the basis 
of quality. The quality of the groups is represented by 
figures 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 respectively. 
Quality 7 represents the poorest samples taken from 
grade five, and quality 17 represents the best samples 
taken from grade eight. The steps of difference between 
the qualities were equal in the sense of being called equal 
by from twenty-three to fifty-five competent judges. 
This means that 14 is as much better than 13 as 13 is 
than 12 ; that 13 is as much better than 12 as 12 is better 
than 1 1 , and so on ; that quality 14 is two times as far above 
zero merit in handwriting as quality 7. 

The scale includes quality 18, which was taken from a 
copy book, and qualities 4, 5, and 6. Samples 5 and 6 
were taken from the fourth grade and sample 4 was manu- 
factured for the purpose of extending the scale below the 
merit of fourth-grade children. 

In the November issue of the Teachers College Record 
for 1 914, Thorndike presents a more fully developed hand- 



234 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

writing scale. This edition is in many respects a marked 
improvement over the 1910 edition. The wide variation 
of form presented in this standard makes it exceedingly- 
valuable in evaluating the legibility of various types of 
handwriting. 

Teachers who habitually think of quality in terms of 
grades can, for all practical purposes, easily transfer the 
qualities of the Thorndike scale into grades, by multiplying 
the numbers of the scale by 5.8. Those who have measured 
the merit of handwriting with this or the Ayres scale will 
not be content to judge the merit of writing in terms of 
personal experience. 

Ayres' 's Handwriting Standard. — In November, 191 1, 
Leonard P. Ayres of the Russell Sage Foundation began a 
preliminary experiment to determine the relative legi- 
bility of different samples of handwriting. He early con- 
cluded that quality of legibility is measurable, and pro- 
ceeded to perfect a writing scale with that in mind. His 
first printed scale appeared in February, 191 2. In dis- 
cussing the merits of this scale he says : "The method by 
which the present scale has been produced, and the criterion 
on which it rests as a basis, differ radically from those 
adopted by Professor Thorndike. The difference in the 
basis is that in the present case legibility has been adopted 
as a criterion for rating the different samples in place of 
' general merit' used as the basis of the Thorndike scale. 
The change substitutes function for appearance as a criterion 
for judging handwriting." 

Ayres gathered 1578 samples of writing from forty school 
systems. The samples were read by ten readers, each of 
whom by means of a stop watch recorded the exact number 
of seconds required to read each sample. The samples 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 



235 



were then placed in eight groups on the basis of the time 
required to read them. The following table shows the 
rating of a type sample of each group. 



Table I 



^ting in Words Read per Minute 
or Sample Found at Each Point 


. 209.2 




. 202.7 




. 195. 1 
. 186.2 




• 175-7 

• 163.4 




. 149. 1 




. 132.2 



Point on Scale 

90% 
80% 

70% 
60% 
50% 
40% 
30% 
20% 



The scale was divided into three longitudinal divisions 
on the basis of slant. The top, or A division, contains the 
vertical samples. The middle, or B division, contains the 
samples of medium slant, and the lower, or C division, 
contains the samples of extreme slant. As implied in the 
above table the scale is divided into eight vertical divisions, 
each of which contains a sample of each slant. The three 
samples in the right column are marked 90%, those in 
the next column to the left 80%, etc. 

Because of the inclusion of samples representing the 
three main types of slant, this scale is easily applied. The 
application of this scale to the handwriting of most school 
systems at once reveals wide variation in writing abilities, 
which implies either widely different methods of teaching, 
widely different ideals as to the sort of writing which should 
obtain, or widely different degrees of zeal towards securing 
good writing. The following graph (Fig. 1) of the writing 
abilities of the children of the Training School of the Illinois 



236 



THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 



State Normal University, as snowri by the first application 
of the Ayres scale, reveals the sort of variation which fre- 
quently exists when subjective standards alone are relied 
upon. 



i 



/ 



7 V 



Xf 



^\ 



M 



£V 



/:< 



I V- 



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V 



// 



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4 



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X 



£>: 



#- 



E0% 



50% 



40% 



50% 



60% 



70% 



80% 



90% 



Fig. 1. — Graph or Writing Abilities, Thomas Metcalf Training School, 
Illinois State Normal University. 



4th grade Numbers on base line represent the 

5th grade amount of ability in terms of per cent. 
6th grade The numbers in the vertical column 

7th grade indicate the number of such abilities 

8th grade found in a grade. 



The first application of the scale showed that there were 
two children in the sixth grade who wrote better than any 
of the children of the seventh and eighth grades. It 
showed also that there were six children in the sixth grade 
who made a grade of 70, while there were but four children 
in both the seventh and eighth grades who reached the 70 
mark. This test makes it perfectly evident, on the one hand, 
that grades five and six needed no extra consideration rela- 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 



2 37 



tive to drill in writing, while, on the other hand, it showed 
that grades seven and eight needed a writing revival. 

The following graph (Fig. 2) shows what was accom- 
plished by the eighth-grade teacher after he became con- 
scious of the relative needs of his pupils. In the November 

















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zo% 



30% 



40% 



50% 60% 

Fig. 2. 



70% 



80% 



90% 



Eighth grade abilities in handwriting October 10, 1918. 

. . — Abilities of the same eighth grade, May 8, 19 19. 

Figures on the base line represent abilities in per cent. 

The figures in the vertical column indicate how many possess such abilities. 

test fifteen pupils made grades of 40% or less ; in the May 
test none made a grade less than 50%. In the November 
test only two pupils made grades of 70% ; while in the 
May test ten pupils made grades of 70%, ten pupils made 
grades of 80%, and three pupils made grades of 90%. A 
careful examination of Fig. 2 will reveal other marked 
changes which resulted from an application of the hand- 
writing scale. 

The Gettysburg Edition of Ayres's Handwriting Scale} — 
Numerous changes have been introduced in this edition. 

1 This third edition of the Ayres Handwriting Scale was published in 
191 7 by the Russell Sage Foundation. 



238 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

The specimens are all on ruled paper. The slant of all 
specimens is the same. The language used is a portion of 
Lincoln's Gettysburg Address — hence the name. 

Doubtless this edition is valuable for determining the 
quality of handwriting in schools employing a uniform 
system of handwriting. It is not so valuable as the so- 
called three-slant scale when individuality of handwriting 
is encouraged. 

Freeman's Chart for Diagnosing Faults in Handwriting. 1 — ■ 
Professor Frank N. Freeman, a specialist in the pedagogy 
of handwriting, has prepared a chart which enables teachers 
of handwriting to locate definitely the main difficulty. 
By the process of analysis he determined the five funda- 
mental characteristics of worthy handwriting. On the 
basis of this analysis he arranged samples of each funda- 
mental characteristic in the order of their degree of merit. 
He arranged these as follows: (1) uniformity of slant; 
(2) uniformity of alinement ; (3) quality of line ; (4) letter 
formation ; and (5) spacing. Three degrees of the quality 
of each fundamental characteristic are further shown by 
three samples charted in the order of merit. The qualities 
of these samples are rated 1, 3, and 5, respectively. 

With the Ayres and Thorndike scales with which to 
find the relative merit of the handwriting of children, and 
the Freeman charts with which to locate its points of 
merit and demerit, the pedagogy of handwriting demands 
the respect of school administrators. At last the teach- 
ing of handwriting has reached the stage of scientific 
pedagogy. 

Starch's Handwriting Standard. — Professor Daniel Starch 

lu An Analytical Scale for the Judging of Handwriting." — The Ele- 
mentary School Journal (April, 191 5). 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 239 

of the University of Wisconsin reported his Handwriting 
Test in the Journal of Educational Psychology for October, 
1 91 3. He pointed out that the Thorndike and Ay res scales 
are measures only of form and legibility, respectively. He 
argued that a simple analysis of handwriting shows that 
its three chief elements are legibility, producibility, and 
form. 

Starch held that legibility can be determined best by 
reading areas of handwriting which are exposed through 
circular openings in a cardboard. In conformity with this 
theory he prepared a device for measuring handwriting. 
From a piece of cardboard, he cut three circular openings 
which were each 2.5 cm. in diameter. By shifting the 
cardboard about over the writing to be measured, he was 
able to test its legibility at several places. The number of 
letters exposed and the time required to read them were 
recorded after each trial. From the records of several 
exposed areas the average reading per letter was com- 
puted. 

Starch's experiments proved that there is a remarkably 
close correlation in the results obtained by the Letter- 
Exposure Test and those secured by the application of the 
Thorndike and the Ayres scales. 

It is doubtful if the Letter-Exposure Test is as con- 
venient for testing the handwriting of large numbers of 
children as is either the Thorndike or Ayres scales ; cer- 
tainly it is not so comprehensive as the Freeman scale. 

After testing the efficiency of writing scales, Starch 
says: "We may conclude that after some practice in the 
use of a scale the measurements with either scale are from 
three to four times as accurate as the valuations made by 
the usual percentile marking system." 



240 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

Reading Standards 

In the last few years a number of excellent reading tests 
have been prepared and standardized. The extensive- 
ness of these tests as well as their accessibility make it 
unnecessary to reproduce them. A general discussion of 
their merits will suffice. Foremost among these are the 
following : Thorndike's scales, Alpha 2 and A 2 — ■ the 
former is a test of the child's interpretative ability and the 
latter of his vocabulary — these are practical tests of much 
merit ; 1 the Kansas Silent Reading Test 2 by Dean F. J. 
Kelly, of the University of Kansas ; Monroe's Standardized 
Silent Reading Tests ; 3 Gray's Silent Reading Test ; 
Gray's Oral Reading Test ; 4 and Courtis's Silent Reading 
Tests. 5 These are the best known of the many reading 
tests which have appeared. 

Each of these tests is workable and exceedingly valuable. 
The Kansas Silent Reading Test requires less effort to 
apply it than do the others. The overlapping feature 
of the Thorndike tests will commend them to practical 
teachers. The Gray tests when carefully supervised by a 
competent person are excellent. Their application re- 
quires too much time and ability for them to be of value 
to the average school. These tests have been used more 
generally in surveys than have the others. The Monroe 
tests have two decided advantages. The materials are 
taken from school readers, and the three-set series prevents 
the necessity of using a test until the children become 

* Teachers College Record. 

2 Journal of Educational Psychology. 

3 Bureau of Educational Measurements and Standards, Emporia, Kan. 

4 Studies in Elementary School Reading Through Standardized Tests. 
6 Standard Research Tests in Silent Reading, Courtis. 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 241 

familiar with it. The Courtis tests are especially suitable 
for the primary grades owing to the simplicity of the 
answers required. Like the Monroe tests, the three forms 
are approximately of equal difficulty. 

The following tests and scales are worthy of considera- 
tion: Brown's Silent Reading Test; Fordyce's Scale for 
Measuring Achievements in Reading, the Minnesota Tests 
in Reading, Jones's Scale for Teaching and Testing Ele- 
mentary Reading, Price's Scale for Teaching and Testing 
Elementary Reading (oral) ; and Starch's Silent Reading 
Test. 

Composition Standards 

Rice's Language Test. 1 — In 1903 Rice gave a detailed 
report of the test he made in language. This test extended 
to nine cities, and included twenty-two schools, containing 
8300 children. The compositions were arranged in five 
groups on the basis of relative merit. The papers of each 
group were graded 100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, 0% respectively. 
The results showed conclusively that there was a wide 
variation in the English abilities tested by him, but owing 
to the strong probability of error in his results, this test has 
not been employed as a standard for determining English 
ability. 

Though Dr. Rice's results are of little value as a standard, 
his experiments have stimulated two lines of research in 
education, which are fraught with wonderful possibilities. 
I refer, on the one hand, to the investigations which have 
had for their goal the establishment of objective standards 
of measurement, and on the other, to the investigations 
to determine minimum essentials. Both of these problems 

1 The Forum, 1903. 



242 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

were raised by Dr. Rice and he has lived to see some partial 
solutions of both. 

Report of Superintendent Bliss on English Composition. — 
While at Elmira, N. Y., Superintendent Bliss reported in 
the Psychological Clinic for March, 191 2, a series of tests 
he had carried on in composition. He had the children 
reproduce stories read to them. These reproductions were 
taken to the central office and grouped, by the plan prac- 
ticed by Rice, into five groups. He determined the median 
ability for all of the children in each of the grades above 
the third. He then reported the median ability for all of 
the children of that grade in the city, with the median for 
the particular grade in each school. He also published 
sample compositions of each group of compositions in the 
scale. 

The results obtained from the use of this scheme were 
little less than marvelous. He says : "In a Massachusetts 
school system, with $$ third-grade teachers the initial test 
showed a city average of 8.5 points, with twenty- three 
classes below the requirement and eight classes above. 
One year later the city average was 19.2 points, with 
thirteen classes below the requirement and nineteen classes 
above. This represented an increase of 126% in the level 
of efficiency in the third grade." Mr. Bliss cites other 
cases where even greater per cents of increase were made 
by the use of this method. 

The Hillegas Scale for the Measurement of Quality in 
English Composition. — In September, 191 2, Professor 
M. B. Hillegas published his composition scale in the 
Teachers College Record. In the introduction to this scale 
Professor Hillegas refers to the previous efforts at quantita- 
tive standards by Cornman, Rice, Stone, and Thorndike. 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 243 

He does not, however, refer to Rice's pioneer effort to es- 
tablish a standard in English composition in 1902. 

Hillegas used „a method similar to the one Thorndike 
used in determining quality in handwriting. He, aided 
by one other person, graded about 7000 compositions into 
ten classes. From these ten classes seventy-five samples 
were chosen. Artificial samples were employed at the 
extremes of his scale, as they were in Thorndike's writing 
scale, in order to produce a scale of wide range of measure- 
ment. In all there were eighty- three samples employed. 
These eighty-three samples were given to more than one 
hundred persons who were requested to rank them 1, 2, 3, 
etc., in order of their merit. 

Owing to misunderstandings and errors, only seventy- 
three records were used. On the basis of like character- 
istics these records were reduced to twenty-three. This 
reduced number of samples contained all the important 
steps in quality from the poorest to the best. Six other 
samples, including two artificial ones, were finally added, 
making a total of twenty-nine samples. 

The twenty T nine samples were ranked by 234 judges. 
On the basis of this ranking the number of samples was 
reduced to ten. The difference between the merit of the 
first and second samples in the scale is not identical with 
the difference in merit of any other two successive samples. 
These differences, however, are sufficiently equal for 
practical purposes. 

The Hillegas scale is a meritorious piece of work. It is 
a decided step in the right direction. The brevity of the 
samples and the natural gradation from one quality to an- 
other make its application from this point of view quite easy. 
This scale nevertheless has many defects. Commenting 



244 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

upon it Frank W. Ballou of the Department of Educational 
Investigation and Measurement of the Boston schools says : 
"An experiment with the Hillegas scale showed that the 
use of such an objective measure did unify the grades given 
to compositions by teachers. It was also found, however, 
that the Hillegas scale was not satisfactory to the teachers 
of Newton, owing to what seemed to them to be inherent 
faults. These faults may be stated briefly as follows: 
first, the scale aims to measure too varied a product; 
second, the compositions in it are not typical of good school 
work — ■ (a) some are artificial, (b) others are bookish, 
really reproductions, and (c) no conversation is contained 
in any of them." * As Courtis's practical tests in arith- 
metic grew out of an attempt to use the conclusions of 
Stone, so an attempt on the part of the teachers of Newton, 
Mass., to use the Hillegas scale led directly to the practical 
Harvard-Newton Scales for the Measurement of English 
Composition. 

The Harvard-Newton Scales. — These scales are the 
product of the work of the eighth-grade teachers and the 
elementary-school principals in the public schools of 
Newton, Mass., assisted by the teachers of English in the 
high schools of Newton, and by teachers and principals in 
Arlington, Mass., and Boston, under the direction of 
Frank W. Ballou with the cooperation of the Joseph Lee 
Fellow for Research in Education. 

The compositions were written by the eighth-grade pupils 
of Newton. All of the compositions of the eleven grade 
schools were grouped into five groups. Each group in- 
cluded specimens of a given type of composition (narration, 
description, etc.). Each eighth-grade teacher selected 25% 

1 A Preliminary Discussion to the Harvard-Newton Scales. 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 245 

of the compositions of his grade on the basis of their 
representative merit. These selected compositions from 
the eleven schools were then arranged into four groups. 
Twenty-four readers were instructed to arrange the themes 
of each group in the order of their merit and to rate arbi- 
trarily the best theme 95% and each of the remaining 
themes with reference to this standard. 

These ratings were tabulated and the median grade for 
each composition was worked out. For example, the 
highest grade for the best composition was 95%, the lowest 
grade was 68%, and the median grade was &$%. In like 
manner tabulation was made of the distribution of the 
ranks given each composition. They were then arranged 
in serial order according to the median ranks, beginning 
with the highest. By means of this latter method it was 
discovered that 25% of the judges were radical in their 
judgment. Consequently the 25% of radical readers was 
cut off. The scale was then built on the median percentile 
basis. Out of the twenty-five compositions which were 
chosen to represent each form of discourse, six typical 
compositions were finally chosen for the scale. The differ- 
ence in degree of quality was carefully worked out and the 
samples were arbitrarily marked 95%, 85%, 75%, 65%, 
55%, and 45%, respectively. 

The Harvard-Newton Scales 1 commend themselves to 
the practical school man on the following points : first, 
there is a scale for each form of discourse ; second, the 
compositions in the scale are the real productions of children 
and not " built up compositions"; third, each scale con- 
sists of only six types. This makes it an easy matter for 
the person doing the grading to familiarize himself with 
1 The Harvard Press, 50 cents. 



246 THE ESSENTIALS OF GQOD TEACHING 

the scales. The greatest weakness in these scales lies in 
the fact that they are best suited for eighth-grade pupils. 

An application of these scales reveals the fact that there 
is but slight variation in the grades given by two or more 
judges. Indeed, the variation is so slight that a single 
investigator can feel reasonably certain that his grades 
will not vary widely from the median grades determined 
by several judges. 

The Harvard-Newton Scale is quite as practical, though 
not so easily applied, as the Thorndike and the Ayres 
handwriting scales, and the Courtis Tests in Arithmetic 
(Series B). It has a real ring to it and merits a wider 
use than it has at present. 

The Trabue Composition Standard. 1 — The Nassau 
County Supplement to the Hillegas Scale in composition, 
which was prepared by M. R. Trabue, consists of a graded 
series of compositions arranged in the order of their general 
merit. These compositions are arranged on a single sheet 
of paper in much the same fashion as are the samples of 
handwriting in the Ayres and the Thorndike handwriting 
scales. The most commendable feature of this standard 
is its simplicity. Its weakness is due to the poor gradation 
and the local character of some of the samples. 

The Breed and Frostic Composition Scales. — Breed and 
Frostic have derived a composition scale for sixth-grade 
pupils. A portion of a story was read to the class, after 
which the pupils attempted to complete it in twenty min- 
utes. The method employed in selecting and grading the 
compositions constituting the scale is similar to the one 
employed by Hillegas. 

Willing' 's Composition Scale. — M. H. Willing produced 

1 Teachers College Contributions to Education, 19 16. 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 247 

this scale as a master's thesis at the University of Chicago. 
The original compositions were taken from grades four to 
eight inclusive. The gradation of the compositions in 
the scale was based upon their " story value" and the fre- 
quency of errors. This scale is meritorious in that the 
compositions are brief, well graded, and easily accessible 
for testing compositions. 

Arithmetic Standards 

Rice's Arithmetic Test. — In the October number of the 
Forum, 1902, Dr. Rice reported the results of an arithmetic 
test which he had conducted in seven different cities, in- 
cluding eighteen buildings and 8000 children. As Stone 
pointed out later, Dr. Rice's results were not satisfactory 
as a standard, due to certain limitations in the problems 
used and the character of the methods employed in gather- 
ing and scoring these. 

The Courtis Standard Tests. 1 — In December, 19 10, 
W. S. Courtis, of Detroit, reported in the Elementary 
School Teacher his Standard Test in Arithmetic (Series A). 
This test developed as a result of applying the Stone test 
in the Detroit Home and Day School, where Mr. Courtis 
was head of the Department of Science and Mathematics. 
After a free use of his Series-A Test, which consisted of 
testing the pupils' ability to use the four fundamental 
processes when expressed in the tables ordinarily used in 
schoolrooms, and of testing the pupils' ability to employ 
the reasoning processes involved in the solution of problems 
suitable to the grammar grades, Mr. Courtis remarked that 
"The work done with Series A has proved that the basic 

1 Because of their wide distribution these tests are not reproduced. They 
may be secured from Mr. Courtis, of Detroit, Mich. 



248 



THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 



problem in education to-day is that of ministering ade- 
quately to individual needs. The first step towards this 
end is the formation of definite objective standards." The 
standards derived from the use of Series A, however, are 
either complex or of questionable value, owing to the un- 
certainty of their meaning. This is particularly true of 
the reasoning tests, in which mere ability to read is a large 
factor. These tests have been displaced by his Series-B 
Tests. 

Series B is the result of an attempt to secure definite 
objective standards for each of the four fundamental 
operations in whole numbers. With the establishment of 
this standard it is possible to set for each grade just the 
degree of skill in each of the fundamental processes that 
is reported in the median scores of the classes that have 
been tested. 

The following table shows the median skills of three 
distinct groups of children in the fundamentals of arithmetic 
when tested by the Series-B Tests. • The approximation 
of the series reveals the universal character of the results. 

Table II 





5th Grade 


6th Grade 




D 


B 


G 


D 


B 


G 


Addition A 

R 
Subtraction .... A 

R 
Multiplication ... A 

R 
Division A 

R 


6.7 

3-9 

8. 

5-5 
6. 

3-8 
4-9 
2.7 


7.2 

3-7 
7.6 
4.9 
5-8 
3-3 
4-5 
2. 


7-i 

3-7 

6-5 

4.9 

6. 

2.6 

4-5 

2-3 


8.4 
4-6 

8.8 
6.2 

7-4 
4.8 
6.4 
4.4 


8-3 
4.9 

9- 
6-3 
6.9 
4.8 

5-5 
3-3 


8. 
4.4 
8.9 
6.1 

7.2 
4-5 
5-8 
4-3 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 



249 





7 th Grade 


8th Grade 




D 


B 


G 


D 


B 


G 


Addition A 

R 
Subtraction .... A 

R 
Multiplication ... A 

R 
Division A 

R 


9.2 

3-4 
9.8 

7-3 

9.6 

6. 

8.6 

7-i 


9.2 
5-6 
IO. 
6.9 

8. 

5-i 
6.9 
5-i 


8-9 

4-7 

10.2 

7.8 
8.4 
5-2 
7.6 

5-i 


10.2 

6.7 
12.3 

9-5 
10.5 

7- 
10.6 

8.8 


II. 

7-5 
11.4 

8.6 
9-5 
6-5 
6.9 
6.9 


9-7 
5-6 
II.7 
8-4 
9-7 
6.4 
7.6 
6-3 



D = Detroit (1,315 children tested) 
B = Boston (20,441 children tested) 
G= General (3,618 children tested) 
A = Number of problems attempted 
R= Number of problems right 



Courtis early discovered the value of the objective 
standard in determining individual variation. He says : 
"The results of the tests disclosed the usual wide range of 
individual variation in every grade." After using these 
objective standards for some time Professor Courtis writes : 
"Not only did the variabilities decrease, but unhoped for 
degrees of accuracy were attained." 

The following graphs of the abilities of intermediate 
pupils in multiplication and oral reading as determined by 
the Courtis and Gray scales show conclusively that varia- 
bility is easily detected by the application of objective 
standards. 

The graphs shown in Fig. 3 reveal two distinct groups 
of abilities in each subject. This may mean that little care 
has been given to promotions. It is more likely to indicate 
a lack of sufficient drill under proper conditions. After 



2 SO 



THE ESSENTIALS OF GQOD TEACHING 



the abilities are once revealed there is every reason to be- 
lieve that a conscientious teacher will cause the abilities 
of the lower group to be raised and thereby reduce the degree 
of variability. 

Just as a proper diagnosis in medicine is a prerequisite 
to effective medical treatment, so a proper diagnosis of 

















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FlG. 3- 

A graph of abilities in oral reading. 

A graph of abilities in multiplication. 

Figures on base line represent units of ability. 

Figures in vertical column indicate the number of persons having such abilities. 

the specific abilities of pupils is a prerequisite to the ap- 
plication of proper methods. 

The Courtis tests are valuable mainly for testing skill 
in the four fundamentals of arithmetic. The following 
tests are for purposes of diagnosis. 

The Cleveland-Survey Arithmetic Tests. — These tests 
consist of the fifteen divisions that are given below. They 
were used in the Cleveland survey to determine the arith- 
metical abilities of the children, so far as they were stimu- 
lated by the processes involved in the test. 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 251 

Set A. Addition 

1-69041 7932136 
265^2 37604589 

Set B. Subtraction 

9 7 11 8 12 1 9 13 4 12 

93_6i^307_83j) 

Set C. Multiplication 



2 


4 




9 


0542 


7 


4 


9 


2 


1 




8 


2619 
Set D. Division 


6 





5 


3)9 




4)32 




6)36 2)0 7)28 
Set E. Addition 


9)9 




3)21 


5 




2 




926 


1 




9 


2 




8 




8 8 3 


4 




7 


2 




8 




054 


2 




1 


O 




5 




708 


5 




5 


4 




1 




6 6 8 


4 




3 



Set F. Subtraction 



616 


1248 


1365 


1092 


716 


456 


709 


618 


472 


344 



Set G. Multiplication 

2345 9735 8642 6789 2345 

25926 



Set H. Fractions 

3.-4-1 — 6._4_ A-l-l— 8__X = 

5 '"S" - 9 9" 9 1 9 — 9 9 



252 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 







7. 




Set I. 
2 


Div] 


:sion 


5 








4)55424 


)6598: 


2)5874* 


5)41780 










Set J. 


Addition 










7 9 


4 


7 


2 


9 6 


7 


7 


8 


9 


4 


3 2 


5 2 


5 


1 


9 


6 9 


1 


8 





5 


3 


1 1 


4 4 


8 


9 


4 


2 6 


5 


5 


7 


3 


7 


7 6 


2 8 


1 


4 


8 


4 7 


1 


4 


1 


4 


7 


6 6 


6 2 


4 


3 


5 


7 


4 


1 


8 


6 





9 1 


7 


8 


2 


1 


1 4 


6 


8 


5 


2 


2 


6 8 


5 5 


5 


8 


5 


3 3 


5 


2 


1 


3 


9 


3 6 


1 3 


1 


5 


2 


9 7 


3 


1 


3 


9 


5 


4 9 


8 6 


3 


2 


4 


2 1 


3 


3 


7 


2 


6 


5 7 


3 1 


9 


7 


3 


3 6 


7 


9 


4 


2 


3 


4 5 


2 4 


6 


7 


6 


8 


6 


8 


9 


8 


4 


2 2 


9 8 


3 


1 


7 


5 6 


1 


4 


4 


5 


8 


9 2 


2 * 


5 


9 


6 


5 5 


7 


5_ 


4 


6 


8 


9 4 










Set K. 


Division 










21)441 






36)672 




23)483 








5i)n73 








Set L. Multiplication 








8246 




3597 


5739 




2 


648 




9537 


29 






23 




_85 






_46 




92 










Set M. 


Addition 










7493 




8937 




8625 




2123 ' 




5142 




3691 


9016 




6345 




4091 




1679 




0376 




4526 


6487 




2783 




3844 




5555 




4955 




7479 


7591 




4883 




8697 




6331 




9314 




2087 


6166 




£34_i 




73i4 




6808 




5507 




8165 










Set N. 


Division 











67)32763 48)28464 97)36084 59)2938: 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 



253 



T5*"V 



TI 



Set O. Fractions 



_ 1 _ 3v5_ 

4 — T A 6" — 



20j_l_ 
2T • 6"- 



The time allowances for the several tests are as follows 



Set A . 

SetB . 
SetC . 
SetD . 
SetE . 
SetF . 
SetG . 
SetH . 



30 seconds 
30 seconds 
30 seconds 
30 seconds 
30 seconds 
1 minute 
1 minute 
30 seconds 



Set I 






1 minute 


Set J 






2 minutes 


SetK 






2 minutes 


SetL 






3 minutes 


Se'tM 






3 minutes 


SetN 






3 minutes 


SetO 






3 minutes 



The Woody Arithmetic Scales. — The Woody scales con- 
sist of Series A and B, each of which includes the four funda- 
mental processes in arithmetic. Series B consists of prob- 
lems chosen from Series A. The addition scale of Series A 
is given below. 

Name 

When is your next birthday? How old will you be? 

Are you a boy or girl ? In what grade are you ? 

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 

2 2 17 53 72 60 3 + 1 = 

3 4 _2 45 26 37 
3 



(8) 


(9) 


(10) 


(11) 


(12) 


(13) 


+ 5+i = 


20 


21 


32 


43 


23 




10 


33 


59 


1 


25 




2 


35 


12 


2 


16 




30 






J A. 






25 











2 54 


THE 


ESSENTIALS 


OF GOOD 


TEACHING 




(i4) 




(i5) 


(16) 


(i7) 


(18) 


25+42 = 




IOO 


9 


199 


2563 






33 


24 


194 


1387 






45 


12 


295 


4954 






201 


15 


156 


2065 






46 


19 







(19) (20) ■ (21) (22) (23) 

$ .75 $12.50 $8.00 547 £+£= 
1-25 16.75 5-75 197 
49 15-75 2.33 685 

678 
456 
393 
525 
240 

i_51 



5.75 


2.33 


4.16 


•94 


6.32 



(24) 


(25) 


(26) 


(27) 


4.0125 


!+t+m= 


"i 


i-i-i 


I.5907 




62| 




4.10. 




"i 




8.673 




37± 





(28) (29) (30) (31) (32) 

\~l= 41 2\ 11346 f+H-i- 

2\ 6f 

-Si Ji 



113.46 


49.6098 


19.9 


9.87 


.0086 


18.253 


6.04 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 255 



(33) 


(34) 




(35) 




(36) 


(37) 


•49 


m= 




2 ft. 6 in. 




2 yr. 5 mo. 


i6i 


.28 


* 




3 ft. 5 in. 




3 yr. 6 mo. 


I2i 


.63 






4 ft. 9 in. 




4 yr. 9 mo. 


2I| 


•95 










4 yr. 2 mo. 


3££ 


1.69 










6 yr. 7 mo. 




.22 














-33 














.36 














1. 01 














.56 














.88 














•75 








(38) 






.56 




25.09 


1 + 100.4+ 


25 + 98.28+19.3614 = 




1. 10 














.18 














^ 















These scales are especially valuable for diagnosing the 
arithmetical ailments of children. The variation and 
gradation of the Woody scales are commendable features 
of these scales. The following quotation from the author 
indicates their specific value: " The great variety of 
the problems in these scales, and the fact that the 
problems in each of the various operations proceed from 
the simplest to the more difficult problems, aid greatly 
in the location of the weaknesses of the class. If a large 
number in a class fail to invert the divisor in the problems 
in division of fractions, or if a large number in a class fail 
to locate the decimal point properly in the problems in 
multiplication of decimal fractions, a teacher should know 
immediately that these classes need more practice in these 
particular processes. In a like manner, by locating the 
particular types of problems missed, one should be able to 
direct the work of a class more intelligently." 



256 



THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 



Bailouts A ddition-of -Fractions Tests. ; — These tests grew 
out of an analysis of the specific steps involved in adding 
two or more fractions. Since specific abilities are required 
to make these specific steps in solving problems in the 
addition of fractions, Ballou rightly concluded that there 
should be a test for these abilities. The Ballou tests are 
given below. 



The Ballou Test for Addition of Fractions 

time, two minutes 

Test 2 

(l) 1 (2) f 

i n 

Test 4 

(l) \ (2) f 

ii i 

Test 6 
(i) * (2) I 

A i 





Test i 


(l) * 


(2) A 


I 


A 




Test 3 


(l) 1 


(2) ! 


ii 


i 




Tests 


(i) A 


(2) | 


i 

6 


A 



Boston Medians of the Ballou Addition of Fractions Tests 







Test 1 


Test 2 


Test 3 


Test 4 


Test 5 


Test 6 


















tn 




Ui 




en 
















a 




fl 




C 




























d 








1 


t/3 

§ 


1) 


a 
••a 


=8 


3 




a 

3 




is 


3 

>> 


3 




% 
rt 


J2 

"3. 


1 


3 


-2 


1 


1 


s 




3 


| 


3 


1) 


s 


s 










w 


a 





ft 




& 




ft 




o 


PL, 


(73 


< 


(73 


< 


C/2 


<! 


C/3 


< 


C/2 


< 


W 


< 


VI . . 


I205 


I0.7 


79.6 


7-7 


65.6 


5-5 


41.9 


4.0 


69.S 


4.6 


Si.o 


4-4 


48.6 


VII . . 


1243 


I6..S 


86.6 


IO. I 


72.Q 


7-3 


46.1 


5-3 


69.2 


6-3 


54-9 


5-7 


48.I 


VIII . 


II30 20.7 


88.2 


11.6 


744 


8.4 


474 


6.0 


67.8 


6.9 


52-4 


6.4 


46.5 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 257 

The other arithmetic tests which have appeared have 
not attracted such wide attention as those given. Reason- 
ing tests in arithmetic, one each by Stone and Starch, have 
been used quite extensively. Other tests will be forth- 
coming. Courtis is perfecting a diagnostic test in the funda- 
mentals of arithmetic, which promises much. 

Drawing Scales 

The Thorndike Scale for Measuring Achievement in Draw- 
ing. — In the Teachers College Record for November, 1913, 
Professor Thorndike presented a scale for the measure- 
ment of achievement in drawing. In reference to the 
purpose of this scale he says : "It is the purpose to present 
a provisional scale by which achievement and improvement 
in drawing can be measured with somewhat the same 
clearness, exactness, and commensurability as achievement 
and improvement in lifting weights." 

The same general method which was used in determin- 
ing the Thorndike Handwriting Scale and the Hillegas 
Composition Scale was employed in the making of this 
drawing scale. Forty-five drawings of children were first 
submitted to a number of critics whose ratings reduced the 
number to a series of fifteen drawings graded from zero up. 

This series of fifteen drawings was rated by 376 persons, 
of whom sixty were artists of distinction, eighty were 
supervisors of art, and 236 were students of education and 
psychology. 

The unit of the scale was one merit. This unit is "the 
difference of merit in children's drawings, which 75% of 
artists, teachers of art, and intelligent judges generally 
can distinguish, and which 25% of them fail to distinguish." 
The drawing lowest in the scale was judged of zero merit. 



2 5 8 



THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 



The difference of merit between two drawings is not neces- 
sarily a unit merit. It depends upon the relative number of 
judges who considered one drawing better than the other. 
If 75% of the judges considered one drawing superior to 
another the difference in quality is called a unit of merit. 
If less than 75% of the judges distinguished a difference 
in merit between two drawings, the difference between the 
two is less than one unit. If more than 75% of the judges 
discerned a difference in merit the difference in quality 
was marked more than one unit. The following is the 
determined rating : 

Table III 



Drawing 1 . 


— merit 


Drawing 8 . . 


10.5 merit 


Drawing 2 . 


. 2.4 merit 


Drawing 9 . . 


1 1.8 merit 


Drawing 3 . 


. 3.9 merit 


Drawing 10 . . 


12.6 merit 


Drawing 4 . 


. 5.7 merit 


Drawing 11 . . 


13.5 merit 


Drawing 5 . 


. 6.5 merit 


Drawing 12 . . 


14.4 merit 


Drawing 6 . 


. 7.8 merit 


Drawing 13 . . 


16 merit 


Drawing 7 . 


. 8.6 merit 


Drawing 14 . . 


1 7 merit 



The reader should see the drawings in the Teachers 
College Record, which accompany these merit values. 

No one is more conscious of the limitations of this scale 
than is Professor Thorndike. In spite of its limitations it 
is a valuable contribution to experimental education. The 
method of attack, the care employed in determining dif- 
ferences in merit, and the scientific attitude of the author 
in the whole procedure will have a wholesome effect upon 
investigators. It is as practical in determining the qualities 
of children's drawings as are the writing scales in determin- 
ing the quality of handwriting. It would better meet the 
needs of the schools if it attempted to measure the various 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 259 

aspects of children's art instead of a single aspect. It is to be 
hoped that it will be followed by other drawing scales which 
will measure the various qualities of children's drawings. 

Geography Scales 

Of the several attempts to standardize the materials in 
geography for the upper grades of the elementary school, 
that by Professors Hahn and Lackey of the State Normal 
School of Wayne, Nebraska, is certainly the most successful 
of those which have as yet reached the public. 

Hahn-Lackey Geography Scale. — This scale consists of 
two hundred and sixteen questions arranged in twenty- 
three columns, on the basis of their relative difficulty. 
The determination of the relative difficulty of these ques- 
tions and their arrangement in columns resulted from an 
examination of the answers of 1696 children in twelve dif- 
ferent schools, to whom the questions were given. 

The known difficulty of the questions, their arrange- 
ment in twenty-three columns in the order of their known 
difficulty for pupils in grades four to eight inclusive, the 
specific directions relative to the values to be given, the 
answers received, the wide distribution of the subject- 
matter involved, and especially the practicability of this 
scale, place it alongside some of the best scales that have 
appeared. 

History Tests 

Tests of Information in American History. — So far, 
methodologists in American history have not succeeded 
in supplying an objective standard that is entirely satis- 
factory. The Tests of Information in American History l 

1 Tests of Information in American History, C. L. Harlan, College of 
Education, University of Minnesota. 



260 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

is the most satisfactory of the attempted standards that 
have appeared on this subject. 

It consists of ten distinct exercises which include a total 
of fifty elements, each of which when answered correctly 
is scored two points. These exercises were prepared for 
the seventh and eighth grades, though they might well be- 
given to grades higher or lower than these. Tentative 
standard scores based upon more than two thousand 
answers have been determined already. 

The Harlan tests are commendable in that they test 
the pupil's control of some very simple yet important data 
which are distributed over the field of American history. 
The data tested have a distinct educational significance in 
that they are samples wisely chosen from the several phases 
of American history. Moreover, both the questions asked 
and the answers required are simple and definite. 

These tests have not as yet reached the quality pos- 
sessed by some of the best tests in other subjects. Until 
the relative value of the information sought has been 
standardized and classified this test fails to possess an 
essential quality of standardized tests. It is to be hoped 
that these tests will be perfected and given to the public 
in the near future. 

Standards in Algebra. 

Standardized Tests in First-Year Algebra. 1 — These tests 
consist of sixteen exercises which include the following 
subjects in the order given : collecting terms, subtraction, 
simple equations, parenthesis, special products, exponents, 
factoring, clearing of fractions, fractional factors, formulae, 

1 Prepared by H. O. Rugg, University of Chicago, and J. R. Clark, Parker 
High School, Chicago. 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 261 

quadratic equations, simultaneous equations, radicals, 
graphs, and quadratic equations with irrational roots. 

These tests are well grouped, progressive, and sufficiently 
inclusive to be valuable. Through the cooperation of 
many schools, median scores have been determined and 
are now available. 

Because of their progressive character these tests are 
admirably suited for diagnostic purposes. Effective diag- 
nosis in first-year algebra is a fundamental problem. The 
diagnostic character of these tests makes them admirably 
suited to solve this problem. 

Hurdles in First-Year Algebra. — A most ingenious use 
of tests in first-year algebra is reported in the Journal of 
Educational Research for January, 1920. 1 These tests 
were arranged by Murray A. Dalman, Director of the De- 
partment of Reference and Research in the Indianapolis 
Schools, for the algebra classes of the Emmerich Manual 
Training High School. 

The tests under each topic in first-year algebra are graded 
into four groups which are labeled respectively C, B, A, 
and A + . Each pupil is given four trials, if necessary, to 
" hurdle" each of these groups. A record of the attempts 
and successes of the several pupils is kept and used as a 
basis for classifying all pupils in algebra. As devices for 
diagnosing ability in algebra for the purpose of grouping 
pupils into classes, these tests will appeal strongly to 
practical teachers of algebra everywhere. 

Standards Used to Measure Both Form and Content. — 
There is a prevailing notion abroad in educational circles 
that objective standards can be used only in measuring the 

1 The first issue of this journal is published for the University of Illinois 
by the Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 



262 THE ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TEACHING 

skills of pupils. Persons who hold this notion argue that 
since these standards measure skill only, the results of 
such measurements are of little value in determining the 
relative merit of teaching. They further argue that since 
the objective standards measure form and not content, any 
marked attention given to this sort of measurement will 
result in an overemphasis of form at the expense of content. 

These arguments are based upon two fallacies: (i) It 
is fallacious to assume that only skill can be measured by 
the objective standard. It is true that standards for the 
measurement of skill were determined first. Standards 
for the measurement of abilities to reason, to enjoy, and to 
appreciate have followed. (2) It is fallacious to assume 
that attention to the measurement of such abilities as the 
fundamentals in arithmetic, handwriting, spelling, form 
in reading, etc., will result in an overemphasis of the 
formal subjects to the detriment of the content subjects. 
This would not be fallacious were it not true that grades 
far above the median indicate an undue emphasis of the 
subject taught and consequently are a mark of poor teach- 
ing. 

It must be remembered also that an application of a 
standard test will detect an undue emphasis of some par- 
ticular subject-matter, as well as an insufficient or over- 
emphasis of it. 

Diagnostic Value of Objective Standards. — Recognition of 
the diagnostic value of tests is manifested in the increased 
number of tests that are specifically intended for that 
purpose. A first-rate doctor would not think of prescribing 
a course of treatment for one who is seriously ill without an 
exhaustive diagnosis of the case. Teachers are beginning 
to have a similar professional conscience. In one's effort 



OBJECTIVE STANDARDS 263 

to "put the oil where the squeak is" a sense of economy in 
time requires that the squeak be definitely located. An 
application of objective standards to the practical affairs 
of the schoolroom aids mightily in locating it. Once it is 
located, good teaching is required to remove it and to prevent 
its recurrence. 



INDEX OF TOPICS 



Accumulated experiences, 73 

Accuracy, 203 

Action reading, 194 

Agencies that conserve subject- 
matter, 43 

Aim of teaching, 3; social aim, 
7; static aspect of, 15 

Alternative questions, 175 

Appeal to instincts, 191 

Application, 104 

Application of principles to arith- 
metic, 200 

Application of writing scale, 206 

Application vs. drill, 105 

Appropriate stimuli, 10 

Arithmetic, present status of, 47 

Arithmetic standards, 247 

A Story of the Quail, 58. 

Austrian method of division, 206 

Austrian method of subtraction, 205 

Ayres's handwriting scale, 206, 227, 

234 
Ayres's spelling scale, 230 

Ballou's addition of fractions tests, 

256 
Basic experiences, 18, 82 
Basic principles underlying read- 
ing, 189 
Blackboard work, 158 
Bliss's composition scale, 242 
Breed and Frostic's composition 
scales, 246 



Brown's silent-reading test, 241 
Buckingham's spelling scale, 231 

Causal factors, 149 

Causal thinking, 83 

Child factor in method, 69 

Child factor in the evolution of 
subject-matter, 45 

Chronological organization, 68 

Class approval, 157 

Classes of standards, 219 

Classes of stimuli, 166 

Classroom materials, 157 

Cleveland survey arithmetic tests, 
250, 251, 252, 253 

Comparison, 103 

Comparison, value of, 177; nature 
of, 177 

Comparison and appreciation, 181 

Comparison and objective stand- 
ards, 186 

Comparison clarifies thought, 184 

Comparison in English, 180; in 
nature-study, 179; in history, 
179 

Comparison in textbooks, 186 

Comparison is fundamental to vig- 
orous thought, 178 

Comparison provokes thought, 179 

Comparison stimulates the memory, 
185 

Congenital variation and selection, 
7i 



265 



266 



INDEX OF TOPICS 



Conservation of energy, 205 
Consistent application, 107 
Control of stimuli, 1 1 
Cornman's contribution to spelling, 212 
Cornman's spelling standard, 229 
Courtis's silent reading test, 240 
Courtis's standard tests, 247 
Crossing the Bar, 182 
Culture need, 30 
Cycle, use of, 202 

Deduction, 107 
Desire to know, a need, 36 
Development method, 1 73 
Devices, 159 

Devices for creating motive, 201 
Diagnostic value of objective stand- 
ards, 269 
Diagrams, 168 
Direct perception, 100 
Direct questions, 175 
Diversity in aims, 15 
Dramatization, two phases of, 194 
Drawing scales, 257 
Drill, 203 

Drudgery, 141 ; examples of, 142 
Dynamic aspect of aim, 15 

Earmarks of responsibility, 146 

Elliptical question, 175 

Emotional factor in teaching, 134 

Enthusiasm, 6 ; for teaching, 1 1 

Ethical need, 26 

Evolution of responsibility, 147 

Examination of data, 109 

Exhibits, 156 

Experimental work, 154 

Expert knowledge in primary read- 
ing, 191 

Expert knowledge in the industries, 
188 

Explanation, 168 



Factors in purposive reasoning, 80 

Factors in a successful act, 3 

Factors in a teaching act, 7 

Felt difficulty, 109 

Felt need, 83 

First-hand experience, 166 

First objective standard, 229 

First step in teaching habit, 1 23 

Formal steps, 209 

Formation of definition, 104 

Fourth step in habit formation, 

132 
Freeman's chart for diagnosing 

handwriting, 238 
Freeman's handwriting scale, 206 
Function of definition, 104 
Function of organization, 149 
Function of subject-matter, 8, 60 
Fundamental basis of responsi- 
bility, 150 
Fundamentals reduced to habit, 22 

Gathering data, 113 
Generic and specific values, 139 
Geography scales, 259 
Gettysburg edition of Ayres's hand- 
writing scale, 237 
Goal of instruction, 14 
Graph of writing abilities, 236, 237 
Gray's oral reading test, 240 
Gray's silent reading test, 240 
Group teaching, 44 

Habit formation, 117 

Habits conserve energy, 119 

Habits make for uniformity and 

consistency, 120 
Habits of reasoning, 89 
Habits release energy, 119 
Habits which should be established, 

121 
Hahn-Lackey geography scale, 259 



INDEX OF TOPICS 



267 



Harvard-Newton composition scale, 

227, 244, 246, 2£9 

Hillegas's English composition scale 

242 
History tests, 259 
Human nature accounted for, 69 
Hurdles in first-year algebra, 261 

Ideals, 27, 142; nature of, 138 
Illustrations, 168 
Illustrative materials, 167 
Imitation, 94 

Imitation a conservative agency, 43 
Importance of interest, 136 
Inanimate organisms, 49 
Incidental agencies, 159 
Indirect perception, 101 
Indirect question, 175 
Individual differences, 90 
Individual reports, 152 
Induction, 99 
Inductive factors, 100 
Industrial success, 1 
Instinctive basis of reading, 199 
Instinctive differences, 91 
Instinctive responses, 87 
Interest, 134, 189 
Interpretative need, 18 
Interpretative abilities, 53 
Intrinsic function of writing, 206 

Jones's scale for teaching and test- 
ing reading, 241 
Jones's spelling demons, 232 

Kansas silent reading scale, 240 
Keeping store, 202 
Knowledge of materials, 4 

Laws of habit formation applied to 

spelling, 215 
Lecture method, 172 



Legal aspects of standards, 218 
Logical and psychological organiza- 
tions, 67 

Maps, 167 

Mark of successful method, 192 

Meaning of motive, 138 

Meaning of teaching, 93 

Means and ends, 93 

Means of generating responsi- 
bility, 146 

Measurement of both form and 
content, 261 

Measurement in the industries, 217 

Method of habit formation, 123 

Method of teaching spelling, 215 

Methods of learning, 94 

Methods of presenting subject- 
matter, 170 

Models, 169 

Monroe's silent reading tests, 240 

Montessorian method, 208 

Motivating aspect of dramatiza- 
tion, 195 

Motivating factors in primary 
arithmetic, 201 ; in primary 
method, 192 

Motive, 137; threefold aspect of, 
137; its use in the law, 13 

Muscular movement, 207 

Muscular percept, 208 

Negative incentives, 86, 159 

Objective standards, 227; origin 

of, 228 
One hundred spelling demons, 232 
Optional work, 153 
Organization and logical thinking, 

56 
Organization and retention, 57 
Organization of geography, 64, 65 



268 



INDEX OF TOPICS 



Organization of Paul Revere's Ride, 

65,66 
Organization of subject-matter, 49 
Organization of the poem, William 

Tell, 62, 63 
Origin of subject-matter, 35, 38 

Phonograms, 193; cause short-cir- 
cuiting, 194 

Pictures, 197 

Play, 140 

Prejudices, 27, 142 

Price's scale for teaching and test- 
ing elementary reading, 241 

Problematic assignments, 151 

Problems, 80, 203 

Project denned, 82; examples of, 
81 ; relation to problem, 81 ; 
value of, 82 

Psychic principles of writing, 207 

Pupil organizations, 162 

Pupils' desire to win, 155 

Purpose determines structure, 50 

Purposive thinking, 78 

Questions, 174 

Reactive attitude of child, 8, 74 
Reading, application of principles, 

192; materials, 198; present 

status of, 191 ; standards, 240 
Reasoning a method of control, 96 
Relative values, 44 
Reports to parents, 160 
Research ideal, 19 
Results of spelling investigations, 

214 
Rhythmic instinct, 192 
Rice's arithmetic test, 247 
Rice's contribution to spelling, 

211 
Rules in spelling, 213 



School's use of expert knowledge, 189 

Schoolroom requirements, 160 

Second step in teaching habit, 125 

Sense differences, 90 

Short-circuiting, 106 

Simplified spelling, 214 

Skill, 21 ; in controlling stimuli, 5 

Social approval a means of respon- 
sibility, 154 

Social efficiency, 17 

Socializing need, 23, 17 

Social sympathy, 25 

Speed, 203 

Spelling problem analyzed, 211 

Spelling reforms, 211 

Spelling standards, 229 

Spontaneous thinking, 76 

Standardized tests, 163; in first- 
year algebra, 260 

Standard of classroom technique, 222 

Standard, grades, and promotions, 
221 

Standard, pupil-community at- 
titude, 220 

Standard, reactive attitude of 
child, 223 

Standards for measuring results in 
teaching, 217 

Standards in algebra, 250 

Starch's handwriting standard, 238 

Starch's silent reading test, 241 

Starch's spelling scale, 231 

Steps in induction, 108 

Stimuli, value and character of, 166 

Structure of subject-matter, 8 

Structure reveals function, 53 

Subjective standards, 219 

Subject-matter a factor in respon- 
sibility, 148; dynamic char- 
acter of, 35 

Success, 204; a positive incentive, 
87 



INDEX OF TOPICS 



269 



Ten-point scale, 225 

Tentative hypotheses, no, 113 

Testing hypotheses, no 

Tests in American history, 259 

Textbook methods, 170 

The Human Seasons, 183 

Third step in habit formation, 

129 
Thorndike's drawing scale, 227 
Thorndike's handwriting scale, 206, 

232 
Thorndike's reading scales, alpha 

2 and A 2, 240 
Topical recitation, 158 
Trabue's composition standard, 246 
Twofold aspect of interest, 135 
Twofold aspect of structure, 

Si 
Twofold aspect of worth-whileness, 

34 
Two theories of evolution, 70 



Two types of reasoning, 99 
Types of thinking, 76 

Unifying idea, means of develop- 
ing, 56 
Unstandardized scales, 225 
Use of generic values, 140 

Value of voluntary contributions, 

152 
Verification, in 
Visual percept, 207 

Wallin's contribution to spelling, 212 
Wasted energy expensive, 190 
Willing's composition scale, 246 
Woody 's arithmetic scales, 253, 

254, 255 
Word lists, 232 
Writing habit, 207 
Writing standards, 232 



INDEX OF AUTHORS 



Ayres, Leonard P., 232, 234, 238 

Bagley, W. C, 16, 124 

Ballou, Frank W., 244, 256 

Bliss, D. C, 242 

Breed, F. S., 246 

Browning, Robert, 47 

Buckingham, B. R., 231 

Charters, W. W., 37, 56 

Clark, J. R., 260 

Cook, W. A., 213, 214 

Cornman, Oliver P., 212, 229, 230 

Courtis, W. S., 240, 247, 249, 257 

Dalman, Murray A., 261 

Darwin, Charles R., 69 

Dewey, John, 97 

Freeman, F. N., 206, 207, 238 

Frostic, F. W., 246 

Galton, Francis, 71, 72 

Gray, W. S., 240, 249 

Hahn, H. H., 259 

Hanus, Paul, 16 

Harlan, C. L., 259 

Ffillegas, M. B., 242 

James, William, 23, 125 

Johnston, Charles H., 225 

Jones, Franklin, 232 

Jones, R. G., 241 

Judd, Charles, 36 



Kelly, F. J., 240 

Lackey, E. E., 259 

La Marck, Jean, 71 

McMurry, F. M., 171, 223, 226 

Mann, Horace, 43 

Monroe, W. S., 240 

O'Shea, M. V., 16 

Rice, J. B., 211, 228, 229, 230, 

241, 247 
Rowe, Stuart H., 23 
Ruediger, W. C, 16 
Rugg, H. O., 260 
Saxe, John G., 39 
Seton, Ernest Thompson, 46 
Spencer, Herbert, 16, 147 
Starch, Daniel, 231, 238, 241, 257 
Stone, Clifford, 257 
Tennyson, Alfred, 47 
Thorndike, Edward L., 16, 232, 233, 

243 
Trabue, M. R., 246 
Wallin, J. E. W., 212 
Warner, Dudley, 46 
Weismann, A., 71 
Whipple, G. M., 154 
Willing, M. H., 246 
Woody, Clifford, 255 



271 



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